How Important A Part Did Florence Nightingale Play In Improving The Training Of Nurses In The 19th Century?

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Just 150 years ago nursing was not regarded as a profession. Stories about nurses in the early 1th century suggest that they often did little to help their patients recover. Most nurses were untrained and were paid less than factory workers. They slept in wards and part of their wages was gin. One of the women who changed that image of nursing was Florence Nightingale. Florence Nightingale was born in Italy on 1 May 180 and was named Florence after her birthplace. She came from a Middle-class family and her parents were appalled by her intentions to go into nursing.

Although she was conscious of her calling at an early age, she found it difficult to break from her social circle and pursue a nursing career. Born to William Edward and Frances Nightingale (in Florence, Italy, hence her name) she was expected to fulfil the usual role of a wealthy young woman, making a good marriage and living a conventional life. But Florence had other ideas as a child she enjoyed learning and developed an interest in social issues, visiting her local hospital and the homes of the sick.

Florence Nightingale brought a new sense of discipline and professionalism to a job that had very bad reputation at the time. She became a nurse despite the opposition of her family, and studied in Europe from 184 and in Alexandria in 1850. In 185 she was appointed the Superintendent at the Institution for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen. At this stage she was already interested in the training of nurses. The Crimean War broke out in March 1854. The use of telegraphic communications by war correspondents to get stories home fast encouraged people to have opinions and comment.

Sidney Herbert, who was both the Secretary of War and a friend of the Nightingale family, requested that Florence went to Scutari to sort out the nursing care in the hospital. Despite opposition from the military, Florence took 8 handpicked nurses in the autumn of 1854 and created a legend to rival the Charge of the Light Brigade. She became known as the "Lady with the lamp" because she always looking after the patients, whatever time it was. When Nightingale took control of one of the hospitals she cleaned up the wards, the filth was removed, air was allowed to circulate. More reliable evidence of her success was the death rate in the hospital 4% before she arrived, but % in 1856. Thus proving that Florence Nightingale was an important part in improving the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

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Florence Nightingale used her fame to help her change the face of nursing forever. Her book, "Notes on Nursing", explained her methods the standard textbook for generations. £44,000 was raised to help her train nurses, and she set up the Nightingale School of Nursing in St. Thomas's Hospital, London. Discipline and attention to detail were important. Therefore proving that Florence Nightingale played an important role in improving the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

Florence wanted nurses to remain single so they wouldn't have divided loyalties. She'd turned down offers of marriage when she wanted to start her career in 1844. Of the 8 nurses she took to the Crimea, 4 were nuns. Although partly due to the poor standard of training outside the convents, this also suggests that she thought nursing like a religious vocation. Thus proving that Florence Nightingale was an important part in improving the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

Although Florence Nightingale was a important part in improving the training of nurses, she was backward looking and believed in the Miasma (bad air) theory of disease. She also did not consider that official government recognition of nursing qualifications were necessary. She was more of an expert in organising than in medical theories.

Although Florence Nightingale was bedridden due to illness contracted in the Crimea for many years, she campaigned tirelessly to improve health standards, publishing 00 books, reports and pamphlets.

In recognition of her hard work Queen Victoria awarded Miss Nightingale the Royal Red Cross in 188. In her old age she received many honours, including the Order of Merit (107), becoming the first woman to receive it.

Florence Nightingale is often portrayed as a romantic figure walking the wards of Scutari. In fact she was very determined and faced opposition from her own family and male prejudice. Her farsighted reforms have influenced the nature of modern health care and her writings continue to be a resource for nurses, health managers and planners. In my opinion Florence Nightingale played a very important role in the improvement of the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

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River Of Iron

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Today, the desire for solitude and wilderness draws people from all over the world to the Grand Canyon -- and yet just 100 years ago, some people thought it was the perfect place to build a railroad. In 188, railroad engineer Robert Brewster Stanton became the second explorer to navigate successfully the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon. He and his intrepid crew set out to survey the area where they planned to build a railroad along the banks of the river, from Grand Junction, Colorado, winding through the massive canyon to the sea.

In RIVER OF IRON -- DREAMS OF A GRAND CANYON RAILROAD, a group of modern-day adventurers retrace the steps of Stanton and his crew deep into the heart of the Grand Canyon. Pulitzer prize-winning author N. Scott Momaday narrates.

The contemporary river rafters follow Stantons trials and travails with the help of Ted Melis, physical science program manager with the Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center. Melis and the group take viewers along the same path and to the exact locations -- including the bedrock walls that bear the inscription of memorials to two of Stantons crew who lost their lives -- and share stories from Stantons diaries, filled with tales of treacherous, unforgiving rapids, frustrating setbacks and tragic loss of life.

Accompanying Stantons diaries are more than ,000 photographs taken during his journey. The photos he took of the proposed railway route were critical to the success of his mission, and getting them proved to be a difficult task. Stanton and his crew faced the rapids of the Colorado River with the flimsy boats of the day. And a serious injury to the expeditions sole photographer forced Stanton, who had never before taken a picture, to take over photographic duties for the remainder of the trip.

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In the end, the Grand Canyon made a profound and unexpected change on Stantons outlook. The thousands of photographs he took helped him to complete the journey with a greater appreciation for the magnificent site. Setting aside his engineering sensibilities, he ultimately realized it was a place to be admired rather than developed..

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Problems faced by the black civil rights movement from 1960-74

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The challenges that the Civil Rights Movement faced during 164-170 were poverty and frustration at the slow pace of change. A split in the movement occurred in 165. Different groups and individuals attempted to deal with these challenges in different ways.

A split in the movement began with the Selma Voting Campaign. A protest march was planned but this was forbidden by the federal government. Martin Luther King went ahead with the march anyway but when they were confronted by troops, they turned back. Sadly this caused a split in the movement with King's followers wanting more conservative methods and radical Blacks wanting faster change. This is where Black Power was formed because they had thought the Government had forgotten about blacks. As well, racism was still very strong in the South and a lot of Blacks had few opportunities and were poverty stricken. Black Power wanted faster change.

There was a lot of Black frustration in the cities because of slow change. Riots broke out in the summers of 164-167 in New York, Philadelphia and Chicago. Blacks were frustrated about their living conditions, schooling, very bad health care, a lot of crime and unemployment. Blacks were feeling let down by the federal government who seemed not to be supporting them anymore. There was distrust in white liberals as blacks didn't feel they were fully committed to the cause of black civil rights. Especially bad riots broke out in the Watts district of Los Angeles. 6 people died, $40 million worth of property was looted, burned or destroyed. 1,000 Police and 1,000 troops had to be called in to stop these riots.

Martin Luther King tried to deal with these problems through the Chicago Housing Campaign. King and his family moved into the slum apartments. They encouraged blacks not to pay rent until the plumbing and heating was fixed. A rally of 45,000 people was held at the Chicago's Soldiers Field Stadium to ask for mixed schools, better jobs and integrated housing. One day after this rally chaos broke out, with rioting and looting going on for days and nights. This was a major set back to the civil rights movement. This campaign was partly successful because a lot of blacks came to hope for better lives but the government made no promises to improve housing and schools and so few changes were made in the ghettos.

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Two different organisations tried to meet Blacks' demands for faster, and not necessarily peaceful, change. Black Power, led by Stokely Carmichael, consisted of old SNCC members. They encouraged blacks to help themselves and each other. They wanted control of black schools and facilities. They would use violence if necessary and didn't want white help.

The second radical black movement was called the Black Muslims. They believed they were superior to whites, that whites were evil and that Blacks would eventually rule the world They were a challenge to the Civil Rights movement because they gave blacks a bad name. Malcolm X was a leader of the Black Muslims and he believed that his group should live a different way of life. He was a brilliant speaker and gained many followers. He converted to the Islamic faith while he was in prison. The Black Muslims worked to help people such as drunks and criminals. No smoking, drinking and womanizing was allowed. Also no Blacks were allowed to associate with whites. Whites were seen as demons. This is where Black Pride developed. Blacks took more of an interest in their history and culture. This new attitude saw the emergence of black drama, literature and poetry. More Blacks were attending university. They refused to be called "Nigger" or "coloured" and they were proud to be black.

King tried a new policy to win back the Black support he had lost. This was called his Broadening Policy. This policy was made to appeal to a wide range of people not just Blacks. King asked the government why they spent money on the Vietnam War when there were people in their own country who couldn't afford necessary items. He also mentioned that it was unfair to draft non-university goers into the army because a lot of those people were blacks whose education was not up to a high enough standard to attend university. This upset the federal government and he lost the support of President Johnson. The Poor Peoples Campaign was also part of the Broadening Policy. King met with leaders of other ethnic cultures such as Indians and Mexicans. A camp-in was organised in Washington where people would live in tents and each day they would send delegations to the Government to ask for better jobs, but King was assassinated before this was able to happen.

The Civil Rights Movement did face a lot of challenges during this period of time. They did not always succeed but they did their best to keep persevering for black equality. Individuals tried to deal with these challenges as well. It was a hard time for the USA especially with the split in the movement and some blacks against each other but they all kept striving for the best they could possibly achieve.

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Cloning

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Genetic engineering has been the up and coming field of biology. Gregor Mendel developed genetic engineering rapidly since 18. He started working with peas and from this, he developed Laws of Genetics. From this law, genetics started to develop rapidly and in 185, human genome project began. In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) was developed by Gynaecologist Patrick Steptoe and his partner Robert Edwards. It first started in 171. The first success was in 175 when a human embryo was inserted successfully in the body of its mother. Unfortunately, the pregnancy developed in the fallopian tube, which caused an ectopic pregnancy. The first IVF baby was born on 5 July 178 at Oldham General Hospital. Soon after that, R.Stillman started experimenting on human cloning at George Washington Medical centre. On 17, Roslin institute developed transgenic cloned sheep called Dolly. Now, human cloning could easily be done.

Human cloning would lessen the worth of individuals and restrained respect for human life. Human life is worth it because it is limited and unreplaceable. With human cloning, human life could be replaced and therefore, life is worthless. Humans are unique in their own way. No one have the same identity. Even identical twins are different in their own way. They have their own talents and thoughts. Clones, however, are different from identical twins. Clones are made and it would not worth the same as a child. Even though parents could clone a child that is dying, it would not worth the same as their original child. Human lives should not be replaceable and it should be valued more.

Human cloning might be used commercially to gain financial. Human cloning could clone human organs. These human organs could be traded for finance. Then the human body would worth no more than animal's body. There would be a 'human farm' and people would start trading human organs. This would be a fundamental desecration to moral respect and dignity of people, treating the human body as an object to be traded in a marketplace. Babies will no more be an outcome of love but bought from a marketplace.

-cant remeber, but there was bibliography-

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Dating comparisons between the U.S. and Mexico

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Dating comparisons between the U.S. and Mexico

The etiquettes of dating differ among the many existing cultures of this world, all of which base their values and morals upon their own structured societies, often following ancient customs. The United States and Mexico are no exceptions. Still, the most noticeable distinctions are all linked to our innermost desires, or the ego. In almost every case, differences in these dating rituals represent the levels of protection that parents offer to their children. Mexican families tend to be more protective by sending younger escorts along with the couple to prevent the male from misbehaving. This is very understandable since Mexicans place a greater emphasis on families being together. American families send couples in groups, but as they turn sixteen, they tend to date on their own, without parental supervision.

The process of finding a companion to accompany someone on a date is similar in the United States and Mexico in many ways. Friends can usually meet and arrange dates during social events such as church services, parties, or school hours. The male is typically the person who asks if a particular girl will join him on a date. Both countries also have cautious parents who often try to protect their children with mild forms of intimidation and 'chaperoning'. Chaperoning, or other forms of supervision are used to make sure that the dating couple act responsibly on their date.

Despite the apparent similarities between our two societies, drastic differences dwell in our dating customs. One major difference is that Americans usually date at younger ages than do Mexicans. However, Mexicans usually send younger family members along on dates to prevent any rambunctious behavior from occurring, while the U.S. sends couples out in groups. Couples only date singularly when they are older and have won their independence from the restrictions set forth by their parents. Until then, Mexican families regularly introduce the boy to the girl's mother to make sure that the boy "understands" the proper courtship restraints.

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The vast array of differences in these two cultures is, as I have already stated, due to the bonds shared between family members. The Hispanic communities uphold family values and place relatives in high regard. Thus, parents will send younger children from the family to accompany the couple, discouraging either party from insulting, cheating or 'moving too fast' with each other. This is entirely in an effort to protect both couples while they are on their date. Other dissimilarities are due to economic tribulations. Many Mexicans in the lower classes of society are unable to date because dating consumes too much time and money. Consequently, dating is a procedure that is related to cultural customs and other applicable situations. The variations in dating between the Mexican and American cultures are therefore due primarily to local traditions.

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The Gender Transformation of Caesar

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Shakespeares Julius Caesar opens with the concurrent celebrations of Caesars defeat of Pompey and the annual fertility festival of Lupercal. The coupling of the two historically separate events each celebrating distinct gender roles dramatically highlights the importance of gender characterization. Romes patriarchal society demands a leader who embodies the virile spirit of the state with leadership marked by strength, courage, and constancy. Caesar quite fittingly assumes this role as he returns valiant and victorious from the battlefields; thus, in order to remove him the strong ruler of Rome, Caesars enemies must retrench his masculinity. Roman society considers women as the embodiment of weaknesses, thinking that their physical, mental, and political inferiority make them of little use beyond reproductive purposes, explaining why aspirants to the throne feminize the identity of the masculine warrior figure to position him as unfit for the crown.

The portrayal of the two female characters of the novel, Portia and Calphurnia, captures the prevailing stereotypical perceptions of women. Caesars wife, Calphurnia, demonstrates womens predisposition towards fearfulness and superstition when she pleads with Caesar to remain at home after dreaming that a statue made in the likeness was Cesar pouring forth blood. Calphurnia establishes the sentiment that fear is a feminine trait with her entreaty to Caesar asking him to use her anxiety as an alibi, saying, Do not go forth today. Call it my fear. (..50). Caesar agrees to this arrangement temporarily with a veiled acknowledgment of the reality- a rhetorical question relating to the fact that he is afeard to tell the graybeards the truth (..67). Caesar then immediately displays his weak resolution when Decius easily persuades him to reverse his earlier decision, and he proceeds to greet the senators, demonstrating another hazardous trait associated with women, inconstancy. Portia similarly behaves in accession with the low expectation of women and demonstrates how weak a thing/ The heart of woman is! (.4.40). She proves herself untrustworthy and reveals to Lucius Brutus involvement in the conspiracy because is overcome with fear. Caesar suffers a great insult through his association with the weak will of woman because in Roman society masculinity is the gauge of Roman worthiness.

Cassius undertakes a dual strategy in rendering Caesar unfit for the position. By listing moments of weakness in Caesars past which illustrate his feminine tendencies, Cassius systematically dismantles the virility of a figure who should be the embodiment of the Roman ideals of masculinity, but he simultaneously seeks to tag Caesar as an immovable, tyrannical leader to provide a solid moral rationale behind the conspiracy. Cassius revelations underscore the question of how [a] man of such feeble temper should/ So get the start of the majestic world (1..1-10). Cassius rescues him from drowning when Caesar cries Help me, Cassius or I sink! (1..111). Similarly, Cassius reveals how Caesar cries for water as a sick girl (1..18). Continuing this attack, Cassius tells of how Caesar, like a woman, is superstitious grown of late (.1.15). Ultimately, Caesars vulnerability becomes fully realized through Cassius projections because they provide the impetus for Brutus to join the cause.

Providing further contrast to the complaint of Caesars strong, inflexible leadership are the physical imperfections which the conspirators exploit as signifiers of feminine weakness. Caesars physical imperfections include the possibility that he is deaf in one ear (1..1) because he must turn his head to hear someone speak (1..17). Compounding this defect, Caesar is also subject to epileptic fits. Caesar adds credibility to claims questioning his fitness for leadership by faltering at the very moment that he is to receive the crown (1..47-54). Brutus comment Tis like he hath the falling-sickness both literally and figuratively foreshadows the progressive devolution of Caesars masculinity which ultimately culminates in his bloody death.

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Caesars death is wrought with imagery of blood and tears that parallels a birthing process in which the mothers life becomes a sacrifice for the survival of the child. Perhaps in death Caesar is able to create a new Rome, lending an interesting twist to the competition over leadership of this new state between his sons Brutus and Anthony. Antonys prediction that Domestic fury and fierce civil strive/ Shall cumber all part of Italy announces that Caesars murder threatens disruption of the motherland of Rome (.1.6-64). Because the woman is the ruler of the domestic realm the use of the word domestic inadvertently places the Caesar in a feminine role. Caesar is symbolically the highest authority of a feminine entity, considering that Rome is classified as a feminine noun. Conjuring up further domestic imagery is Antonys comment that mothers shall but smile when they behold/ Their infants quartered with the hands of war (.1. 67-68). Perhaps by placing Caesar in an unconventional mother-like role, Shakespeare allows for him to conceive the children that his infertile wife, Calphurnia, is never able to, thus, allowing for the full realization of Lupercal, the event that symbolically opens the play. In Calphurnias foreboding dream of Caesars statue, Which, like a fountain with an hundred spouts, / Did run pure blood, and many lusty Romans/ Came smiling and did bathe their hands in it (..76-7), Caesar becomes a nursing mother as his, suggesting that Caesar provides mother-like lifeblood to his country in his death, reaffirming Decius earlier interpretation of Calphurnias dream that from you [Caesar] Rome shall suck/ Reviving blood (..87). A variation of the notion of Caesar as a reproductive figure is the notable parallel between the bloody images used to discuss Caesars body and the menstrual of women. The phrases all the while ran blood (..11) and bleeding business (.1.168) accompanying this discussion create a distorted image of the reproductive cycle. Assuming that Caesar does achieve a mutated form of reproduction, Shakespeare fittingly develops a bizarre and twisted characterization of sexuality.

Caesar becomes further feminized when his figure no longer is that of an ideal valiant warrior which inspires men; rather the feminine vulnerability of his wounded stirs feeling of pity. Brutus comment Had I as many eyes as thou hast wounds/ Weeping as fast as they stream forth thy blood (.1.00-01) relates the transformation of a world recently clad with armory and weapons to state reduced tears. Caesar becomes like a woman who has been completely violated by ruthless hunters who requires a strong male-like figure to vindicate the injustice which has been done to her [him]. Calphurnias earlier use of the phrase lusty Romans adds a sexualized dimension to the regicide, allowing for the possibility that the hunters metaphorically rape Caesar. As the men ritualistically cover themselves with Caesars blood it as if they are celebrating the success of the hunt. Antony condemns the conspirators as predatory and bestial hunters and creates the image of a victimized Caesar, saying

Villians! You did not so, when your vile daggers

Hacked one another in the sides of Caesar

You showed your teeth like apes, and fawned like

hounds (5.1.-4).

Caesars corpse stirs pity in the hearts of his oppressors, a far cry from the tyrannical leader framed by his accusers. In Antonys glorification of the corpse of Caesar, Caesar has been truly reduced to a feminine state. He requires a man to plead his case with society, and the strong figure is accessible and needs the support of the fickle masses.

Show you sweet Caesars wounds, poor poor dumb mouths,

And bid them speak for me. But were I Brutus,

and Brutus Antony, there were an Antony

Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue

In every wound of Caesar that should move

The Stones of Rome to rise in mutiny. (..7-)

Calphurnia whose warning goes unheeded by Caesar demonstrates the impotency of a womans voice. In death Caesars voice, like that of a woman, is no longer heard, and his violated body projects the image mouths which are objects serving as symbols of female sexuality to which Antonys reference to tongues gives additional sexual implications. It is the tongue and mouth that serve as the initial sight of contact when kissing occurs. The sexuality of this image brings further strength to the previous parallel made between the reproductive process and Caesars death.

The transformation of Caesar from a figure of male potency to one of feminine weakness creates a complicated and distorted message of sexuality. Traits become no longer inherently masculine or feminine because the ultimate fate of Caesar merges weakness and strength. The strange paradox of the play is how wounds, a traditionally feminine sign of vulnerability, ultimately become equated with masculinity. Portias decision to voluntarily wound herself demonstrates the awe and admiration which wounds can inspire in the masculine sphere; it is after seeing her self inflicted wounds that Brutus discloses to her the secret plans of the conspiracy. Similarly, it is through his wounds that Caesar is able to eventually to win vindication for his death because they move the crowd to action against the conspirators, allowing for leadership through injury. The sword symbolically represents a phallic-like sign of vitality which leads to the retransformation of Caesar into a figure of masculinity. Brutus acknowledges, O Julius Caesar, though art mightly yet/ Thy spirit walks abroad and turns our swords/ In our own proper entrails (5..4-6). The sword that causes Caesars fatal wounds serves as the instrument that brings an end to Cassius and Brutus. Cassius proclaims in his death Guide thou the sword- Caesar, thou art revenged, /Eve with the sword that killed thee (5..45-46). This conclusion of ultimate victory of the masculine spirit seems the only fitting outcome for Shakespeare to engineer if his play is to be a true reflection of Roman culture. Women hold value only in terms of the services that the provide which advance the interests of the masculine community, and in this case, the conspirators needed grounds to render Caesar inadequate for his position and feminizing him provides a useful mechanism in doing so. The retransformation of Caesar solidifies itself in Octavious declaration to the world that This was a man!, (5.5.75) reinforcing the notion that the masculine spirit will prevail in Roman society.

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Photosynthesis

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Introduction

The process of photosynthesis is vital to humans and all other living organisms

on earth. Through photosynthesis plants use water, carbon dioxide, and light to

supply themselves with food and the rest of the world with oxygen. Although all

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plants carry out photosynthesis, the process by which they do so varies

depending on the plant. The rate at which plants produce oxygen is also

dependent on the plant. Two classifications of plants that differ in the way

they carry out photosynthesis are C plants and C4 plants. C plants such as

soybeans and rice go through two stages of photosynthesis which are light

reactions and the Calvin cycle. While in the light, during the Calvin cycle, C

plants often go through a process called photorespiration when the plant uses O

for the Calvin cycle instead of CO and therefore does not produce food or ATP.

This occurs when the weather gets too hot and dry for the stomata to be open and

rubisco, the Calvin cycle enzyme for C plants, accepts O and it overtakes the

CO concentration . C4 plants such as sugarcane and corn, on the other hand,

have adapted to hot, dry climate so that they do not carry out photorespiration.

The reason C4 plants differ from C plants is because the enzyme used in their

Calvin cycle called PEP carboxylase has a high affinity for CO and is able to

fix the CO concentration and not allow oxygen to overtake it.

We were specifically interested in the rate that both of these plants carried

out photosynthesis when a leaf from each plant was placed under a light. The

amount of oxygen produced, which is a byproduct of photosynthesis, was used to

measure the photosynthetic rate of each leaf. Since C plants carry out

photorespiration when exposed to excessive light, we hypothesized that the C4

leaf would produce oxygen more efficiently. The C leaf that we used was one

from a lima bean plant and the C4 leaf that we used was one from a corn plant.

We believed that the corn plant would have a higher photosynthetic rate when

placed under a light.

Methods

We obtained two leaves, one was from a lima bean plant, which is a C plant,

the other was from a corn plant, which is a C4 plant. We sealed the lima bean

leaf into the leaf chamber so that it was not shaded by the O sensor of the gas

inlet and outlet port holes. We placed a plastic petri dish filled with water on

top of the leaf chamber covering most of the leaf surface. We then inflated the

plastic gas bag with our breath, being careful not to overinflate the bag. After

the bag was inflated we sealed it with the luer lock plug. Since the y-axis

values for the pO and light graphs were already set for us, we proceeded to

click the start button on the computer screen. We then immediately removed the

plugs from the leaf chamber and squeezed the bag to send CO through the leaf

chamber. When the level of O hit 16 on the computer screen we resealed the gas

bag and the leaf chamber. After approximately one minute we used the dimmer

switch to turn on the light and began to observe the changes in O

concentration. We observed this leaf's O production for 5 minutes and pressed

the stop button on the computer screen. Then we highlighted the middle portion

of the graph and used the computer to find its slope. We then removed the lima

bean leaf from the leaf chamber and replaced it with the leaf from the corn

plant. Since we had already inflated the bag with our breath for the first leaf,

we did not need to do it again. We simply went through exactly the same steps

again beginning with pressing start on the computer screen and squeezing the bag

until the O level on the screen read 16. After completing all of the steps and

waiting 0 minutes we pushed stop on the computer screen, highlighted the middle

of the graph, and used the computer to obtain the slope of the line. Then both

of the leaves were taken and traced onto graph paper to obtain the surface area

of both. To figure out the surface area we counted the number of squares that

were entirely inside the leaf. Then, any squares that were intersecting the leaf

margin were given a value of 0.5. We added the values and divided by 4. This

gave us the leaf surface area in cm. Using the slope given by the computer and

degrees for our temperature, we were then able to use equation (1) to figure

out how many ìmoles of O per liter per minute of gas was in the leaf chamber.

(1) y= 10,000x/[(7 + T)/7] x .41 = ìmoles of O/L/min

We took the number we obtained here and put it into equation () to find out the

photosynthetic rate of both leaves.

() photosynthetic rate = 0.047 x y/leaf surface area ìmole O/m/min

Results

After we observed the O production for 5 minutes on both leaves we obtained

graphs that displayed the rate at which each plant produced O. Figure 1 below

displays the result for the lima bean plant and Figure displays the result for

the corn plant.

Figure 1

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Figure

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Using equations (1) and () from above we were able to find the photosynthetic

rates for the C plant and the C4 plant. We were able to conclude from these

findings that C4 plants produce O at a more rapid pace than C plants. The

individual data are shown below in Table 1.

Table 1

Plant Type Data Interval %O/min Photosynthetic Rate

(ìmole O/m/min)

C plant, lima bean 5 minutes .08 .18

C4 plant, corn 5 minutes .046 .117

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