How Important A Part Did Florence Nightingale Play In Improving The Training Of Nurses In The 19th Century?

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Just 150 years ago nursing was not regarded as a profession. Stories about nurses in the early 1th century suggest that they often did little to help their patients recover. Most nurses were untrained and were paid less than factory workers. They slept in wards and part of their wages was gin. One of the women who changed that image of nursing was Florence Nightingale. Florence Nightingale was born in Italy on 1 May 180 and was named Florence after her birthplace. She came from a Middle-class family and her parents were appalled by her intentions to go into nursing.

Although she was conscious of her calling at an early age, she found it difficult to break from her social circle and pursue a nursing career. Born to William Edward and Frances Nightingale (in Florence, Italy, hence her name) she was expected to fulfil the usual role of a wealthy young woman, making a good marriage and living a conventional life. But Florence had other ideas as a child she enjoyed learning and developed an interest in social issues, visiting her local hospital and the homes of the sick.

Florence Nightingale brought a new sense of discipline and professionalism to a job that had very bad reputation at the time. She became a nurse despite the opposition of her family, and studied in Europe from 184 and in Alexandria in 1850. In 185 she was appointed the Superintendent at the Institution for the Care of Sick Gentlewomen. At this stage she was already interested in the training of nurses. The Crimean War broke out in March 1854. The use of telegraphic communications by war correspondents to get stories home fast encouraged people to have opinions and comment.

Sidney Herbert, who was both the Secretary of War and a friend of the Nightingale family, requested that Florence went to Scutari to sort out the nursing care in the hospital. Despite opposition from the military, Florence took 8 handpicked nurses in the autumn of 1854 and created a legend to rival the Charge of the Light Brigade. She became known as the "Lady with the lamp" because she always looking after the patients, whatever time it was. When Nightingale took control of one of the hospitals she cleaned up the wards, the filth was removed, air was allowed to circulate. More reliable evidence of her success was the death rate in the hospital 4% before she arrived, but % in 1856. Thus proving that Florence Nightingale was an important part in improving the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

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Florence Nightingale used her fame to help her change the face of nursing forever. Her book, "Notes on Nursing", explained her methods the standard textbook for generations. £44,000 was raised to help her train nurses, and she set up the Nightingale School of Nursing in St. Thomas's Hospital, London. Discipline and attention to detail were important. Therefore proving that Florence Nightingale played an important role in improving the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

Florence wanted nurses to remain single so they wouldn't have divided loyalties. She'd turned down offers of marriage when she wanted to start her career in 1844. Of the 8 nurses she took to the Crimea, 4 were nuns. Although partly due to the poor standard of training outside the convents, this also suggests that she thought nursing like a religious vocation. Thus proving that Florence Nightingale was an important part in improving the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

Although Florence Nightingale was a important part in improving the training of nurses, she was backward looking and believed in the Miasma (bad air) theory of disease. She also did not consider that official government recognition of nursing qualifications were necessary. She was more of an expert in organising than in medical theories.

Although Florence Nightingale was bedridden due to illness contracted in the Crimea for many years, she campaigned tirelessly to improve health standards, publishing 00 books, reports and pamphlets.

In recognition of her hard work Queen Victoria awarded Miss Nightingale the Royal Red Cross in 188. In her old age she received many honours, including the Order of Merit (107), becoming the first woman to receive it.

Florence Nightingale is often portrayed as a romantic figure walking the wards of Scutari. In fact she was very determined and faced opposition from her own family and male prejudice. Her farsighted reforms have influenced the nature of modern health care and her writings continue to be a resource for nurses, health managers and planners. In my opinion Florence Nightingale played a very important role in the improvement of the training of nurses in the 1th Century.

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River Of Iron

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Today, the desire for solitude and wilderness draws people from all over the world to the Grand Canyon -- and yet just 100 years ago, some people thought it was the perfect place to build a railroad. In 188, railroad engineer Robert Brewster Stanton became the second explorer to navigate successfully the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon. He and his intrepid crew set out to survey the area where they planned to build a railroad along the banks of the river, from Grand Junction, Colorado, winding through the massive canyon to the sea.

In RIVER OF IRON -- DREAMS OF A GRAND CANYON RAILROAD, a group of modern-day adventurers retrace the steps of Stanton and his crew deep into the heart of the Grand Canyon. Pulitzer prize-winning author N. Scott Momaday narrates.

The contemporary river rafters follow Stantons trials and travails with the help of Ted Melis, physical science program manager with the Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center. Melis and the group take viewers along the same path and to the exact locations -- including the bedrock walls that bear the inscription of memorials to two of Stantons crew who lost their lives -- and share stories from Stantons diaries, filled with tales of treacherous, unforgiving rapids, frustrating setbacks and tragic loss of life.

Accompanying Stantons diaries are more than ,000 photographs taken during his journey. The photos he took of the proposed railway route were critical to the success of his mission, and getting them proved to be a difficult task. Stanton and his crew faced the rapids of the Colorado River with the flimsy boats of the day. And a serious injury to the expeditions sole photographer forced Stanton, who had never before taken a picture, to take over photographic duties for the remainder of the trip.

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In the end, the Grand Canyon made a profound and unexpected change on Stantons outlook. The thousands of photographs he took helped him to complete the journey with a greater appreciation for the magnificent site. Setting aside his engineering sensibilities, he ultimately realized it was a place to be admired rather than developed..

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Problems faced by the black civil rights movement from 1960-74

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The challenges that the Civil Rights Movement faced during 164-170 were poverty and frustration at the slow pace of change. A split in the movement occurred in 165. Different groups and individuals attempted to deal with these challenges in different ways.

A split in the movement began with the Selma Voting Campaign. A protest march was planned but this was forbidden by the federal government. Martin Luther King went ahead with the march anyway but when they were confronted by troops, they turned back. Sadly this caused a split in the movement with King's followers wanting more conservative methods and radical Blacks wanting faster change. This is where Black Power was formed because they had thought the Government had forgotten about blacks. As well, racism was still very strong in the South and a lot of Blacks had few opportunities and were poverty stricken. Black Power wanted faster change.

There was a lot of Black frustration in the cities because of slow change. Riots broke out in the summers of 164-167 in New York, Philadelphia and Chicago. Blacks were frustrated about their living conditions, schooling, very bad health care, a lot of crime and unemployment. Blacks were feeling let down by the federal government who seemed not to be supporting them anymore. There was distrust in white liberals as blacks didn't feel they were fully committed to the cause of black civil rights. Especially bad riots broke out in the Watts district of Los Angeles. 6 people died, $40 million worth of property was looted, burned or destroyed. 1,000 Police and 1,000 troops had to be called in to stop these riots.

Martin Luther King tried to deal with these problems through the Chicago Housing Campaign. King and his family moved into the slum apartments. They encouraged blacks not to pay rent until the plumbing and heating was fixed. A rally of 45,000 people was held at the Chicago's Soldiers Field Stadium to ask for mixed schools, better jobs and integrated housing. One day after this rally chaos broke out, with rioting and looting going on for days and nights. This was a major set back to the civil rights movement. This campaign was partly successful because a lot of blacks came to hope for better lives but the government made no promises to improve housing and schools and so few changes were made in the ghettos.

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Two different organisations tried to meet Blacks' demands for faster, and not necessarily peaceful, change. Black Power, led by Stokely Carmichael, consisted of old SNCC members. They encouraged blacks to help themselves and each other. They wanted control of black schools and facilities. They would use violence if necessary and didn't want white help.

The second radical black movement was called the Black Muslims. They believed they were superior to whites, that whites were evil and that Blacks would eventually rule the world They were a challenge to the Civil Rights movement because they gave blacks a bad name. Malcolm X was a leader of the Black Muslims and he believed that his group should live a different way of life. He was a brilliant speaker and gained many followers. He converted to the Islamic faith while he was in prison. The Black Muslims worked to help people such as drunks and criminals. No smoking, drinking and womanizing was allowed. Also no Blacks were allowed to associate with whites. Whites were seen as demons. This is where Black Pride developed. Blacks took more of an interest in their history and culture. This new attitude saw the emergence of black drama, literature and poetry. More Blacks were attending university. They refused to be called "Nigger" or "coloured" and they were proud to be black.

King tried a new policy to win back the Black support he had lost. This was called his Broadening Policy. This policy was made to appeal to a wide range of people not just Blacks. King asked the government why they spent money on the Vietnam War when there were people in their own country who couldn't afford necessary items. He also mentioned that it was unfair to draft non-university goers into the army because a lot of those people were blacks whose education was not up to a high enough standard to attend university. This upset the federal government and he lost the support of President Johnson. The Poor Peoples Campaign was also part of the Broadening Policy. King met with leaders of other ethnic cultures such as Indians and Mexicans. A camp-in was organised in Washington where people would live in tents and each day they would send delegations to the Government to ask for better jobs, but King was assassinated before this was able to happen.

The Civil Rights Movement did face a lot of challenges during this period of time. They did not always succeed but they did their best to keep persevering for black equality. Individuals tried to deal with these challenges as well. It was a hard time for the USA especially with the split in the movement and some blacks against each other but they all kept striving for the best they could possibly achieve.

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Cloning

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Genetic engineering has been the up and coming field of biology. Gregor Mendel developed genetic engineering rapidly since 18. He started working with peas and from this, he developed Laws of Genetics. From this law, genetics started to develop rapidly and in 185, human genome project began. In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) was developed by Gynaecologist Patrick Steptoe and his partner Robert Edwards. It first started in 171. The first success was in 175 when a human embryo was inserted successfully in the body of its mother. Unfortunately, the pregnancy developed in the fallopian tube, which caused an ectopic pregnancy. The first IVF baby was born on 5 July 178 at Oldham General Hospital. Soon after that, R.Stillman started experimenting on human cloning at George Washington Medical centre. On 17, Roslin institute developed transgenic cloned sheep called Dolly. Now, human cloning could easily be done.

Human cloning would lessen the worth of individuals and restrained respect for human life. Human life is worth it because it is limited and unreplaceable. With human cloning, human life could be replaced and therefore, life is worthless. Humans are unique in their own way. No one have the same identity. Even identical twins are different in their own way. They have their own talents and thoughts. Clones, however, are different from identical twins. Clones are made and it would not worth the same as a child. Even though parents could clone a child that is dying, it would not worth the same as their original child. Human lives should not be replaceable and it should be valued more.

Human cloning might be used commercially to gain financial. Human cloning could clone human organs. These human organs could be traded for finance. Then the human body would worth no more than animal's body. There would be a 'human farm' and people would start trading human organs. This would be a fundamental desecration to moral respect and dignity of people, treating the human body as an object to be traded in a marketplace. Babies will no more be an outcome of love but bought from a marketplace.

-cant remeber, but there was bibliography-

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Dating comparisons between the U.S. and Mexico

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Dating comparisons between the U.S. and Mexico

The etiquettes of dating differ among the many existing cultures of this world, all of which base their values and morals upon their own structured societies, often following ancient customs. The United States and Mexico are no exceptions. Still, the most noticeable distinctions are all linked to our innermost desires, or the ego. In almost every case, differences in these dating rituals represent the levels of protection that parents offer to their children. Mexican families tend to be more protective by sending younger escorts along with the couple to prevent the male from misbehaving. This is very understandable since Mexicans place a greater emphasis on families being together. American families send couples in groups, but as they turn sixteen, they tend to date on their own, without parental supervision.

The process of finding a companion to accompany someone on a date is similar in the United States and Mexico in many ways. Friends can usually meet and arrange dates during social events such as church services, parties, or school hours. The male is typically the person who asks if a particular girl will join him on a date. Both countries also have cautious parents who often try to protect their children with mild forms of intimidation and 'chaperoning'. Chaperoning, or other forms of supervision are used to make sure that the dating couple act responsibly on their date.

Despite the apparent similarities between our two societies, drastic differences dwell in our dating customs. One major difference is that Americans usually date at younger ages than do Mexicans. However, Mexicans usually send younger family members along on dates to prevent any rambunctious behavior from occurring, while the U.S. sends couples out in groups. Couples only date singularly when they are older and have won their independence from the restrictions set forth by their parents. Until then, Mexican families regularly introduce the boy to the girl's mother to make sure that the boy "understands" the proper courtship restraints.

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The vast array of differences in these two cultures is, as I have already stated, due to the bonds shared between family members. The Hispanic communities uphold family values and place relatives in high regard. Thus, parents will send younger children from the family to accompany the couple, discouraging either party from insulting, cheating or 'moving too fast' with each other. This is entirely in an effort to protect both couples while they are on their date. Other dissimilarities are due to economic tribulations. Many Mexicans in the lower classes of society are unable to date because dating consumes too much time and money. Consequently, dating is a procedure that is related to cultural customs and other applicable situations. The variations in dating between the Mexican and American cultures are therefore due primarily to local traditions.

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The Gender Transformation of Caesar

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Shakespeares Julius Caesar opens with the concurrent celebrations of Caesars defeat of Pompey and the annual fertility festival of Lupercal. The coupling of the two historically separate events each celebrating distinct gender roles dramatically highlights the importance of gender characterization. Romes patriarchal society demands a leader who embodies the virile spirit of the state with leadership marked by strength, courage, and constancy. Caesar quite fittingly assumes this role as he returns valiant and victorious from the battlefields; thus, in order to remove him the strong ruler of Rome, Caesars enemies must retrench his masculinity. Roman society considers women as the embodiment of weaknesses, thinking that their physical, mental, and political inferiority make them of little use beyond reproductive purposes, explaining why aspirants to the throne feminize the identity of the masculine warrior figure to position him as unfit for the crown.

The portrayal of the two female characters of the novel, Portia and Calphurnia, captures the prevailing stereotypical perceptions of women. Caesars wife, Calphurnia, demonstrates womens predisposition towards fearfulness and superstition when she pleads with Caesar to remain at home after dreaming that a statue made in the likeness was Cesar pouring forth blood. Calphurnia establishes the sentiment that fear is a feminine trait with her entreaty to Caesar asking him to use her anxiety as an alibi, saying, Do not go forth today. Call it my fear. (..50). Caesar agrees to this arrangement temporarily with a veiled acknowledgment of the reality- a rhetorical question relating to the fact that he is afeard to tell the graybeards the truth (..67). Caesar then immediately displays his weak resolution when Decius easily persuades him to reverse his earlier decision, and he proceeds to greet the senators, demonstrating another hazardous trait associated with women, inconstancy. Portia similarly behaves in accession with the low expectation of women and demonstrates how weak a thing/ The heart of woman is! (.4.40). She proves herself untrustworthy and reveals to Lucius Brutus involvement in the conspiracy because is overcome with fear. Caesar suffers a great insult through his association with the weak will of woman because in Roman society masculinity is the gauge of Roman worthiness.

Cassius undertakes a dual strategy in rendering Caesar unfit for the position. By listing moments of weakness in Caesars past which illustrate his feminine tendencies, Cassius systematically dismantles the virility of a figure who should be the embodiment of the Roman ideals of masculinity, but he simultaneously seeks to tag Caesar as an immovable, tyrannical leader to provide a solid moral rationale behind the conspiracy. Cassius revelations underscore the question of how [a] man of such feeble temper should/ So get the start of the majestic world (1..1-10). Cassius rescues him from drowning when Caesar cries Help me, Cassius or I sink! (1..111). Similarly, Cassius reveals how Caesar cries for water as a sick girl (1..18). Continuing this attack, Cassius tells of how Caesar, like a woman, is superstitious grown of late (.1.15). Ultimately, Caesars vulnerability becomes fully realized through Cassius projections because they provide the impetus for Brutus to join the cause.

Providing further contrast to the complaint of Caesars strong, inflexible leadership are the physical imperfections which the conspirators exploit as signifiers of feminine weakness. Caesars physical imperfections include the possibility that he is deaf in one ear (1..1) because he must turn his head to hear someone speak (1..17). Compounding this defect, Caesar is also subject to epileptic fits. Caesar adds credibility to claims questioning his fitness for leadership by faltering at the very moment that he is to receive the crown (1..47-54). Brutus comment Tis like he hath the falling-sickness both literally and figuratively foreshadows the progressive devolution of Caesars masculinity which ultimately culminates in his bloody death.

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Caesars death is wrought with imagery of blood and tears that parallels a birthing process in which the mothers life becomes a sacrifice for the survival of the child. Perhaps in death Caesar is able to create a new Rome, lending an interesting twist to the competition over leadership of this new state between his sons Brutus and Anthony. Antonys prediction that Domestic fury and fierce civil strive/ Shall cumber all part of Italy announces that Caesars murder threatens disruption of the motherland of Rome (.1.6-64). Because the woman is the ruler of the domestic realm the use of the word domestic inadvertently places the Caesar in a feminine role. Caesar is symbolically the highest authority of a feminine entity, considering that Rome is classified as a feminine noun. Conjuring up further domestic imagery is Antonys comment that mothers shall but smile when they behold/ Their infants quartered with the hands of war (.1. 67-68). Perhaps by placing Caesar in an unconventional mother-like role, Shakespeare allows for him to conceive the children that his infertile wife, Calphurnia, is never able to, thus, allowing for the full realization of Lupercal, the event that symbolically opens the play. In Calphurnias foreboding dream of Caesars statue, Which, like a fountain with an hundred spouts, / Did run pure blood, and many lusty Romans/ Came smiling and did bathe their hands in it (..76-7), Caesar becomes a nursing mother as his, suggesting that Caesar provides mother-like lifeblood to his country in his death, reaffirming Decius earlier interpretation of Calphurnias dream that from you [Caesar] Rome shall suck/ Reviving blood (..87). A variation of the notion of Caesar as a reproductive figure is the notable parallel between the bloody images used to discuss Caesars body and the menstrual of women. The phrases all the while ran blood (..11) and bleeding business (.1.168) accompanying this discussion create a distorted image of the reproductive cycle. Assuming that Caesar does achieve a mutated form of reproduction, Shakespeare fittingly develops a bizarre and twisted characterization of sexuality.

Caesar becomes further feminized when his figure no longer is that of an ideal valiant warrior which inspires men; rather the feminine vulnerability of his wounded stirs feeling of pity. Brutus comment Had I as many eyes as thou hast wounds/ Weeping as fast as they stream forth thy blood (.1.00-01) relates the transformation of a world recently clad with armory and weapons to state reduced tears. Caesar becomes like a woman who has been completely violated by ruthless hunters who requires a strong male-like figure to vindicate the injustice which has been done to her [him]. Calphurnias earlier use of the phrase lusty Romans adds a sexualized dimension to the regicide, allowing for the possibility that the hunters metaphorically rape Caesar. As the men ritualistically cover themselves with Caesars blood it as if they are celebrating the success of the hunt. Antony condemns the conspirators as predatory and bestial hunters and creates the image of a victimized Caesar, saying

Villians! You did not so, when your vile daggers

Hacked one another in the sides of Caesar

You showed your teeth like apes, and fawned like

hounds (5.1.-4).

Caesars corpse stirs pity in the hearts of his oppressors, a far cry from the tyrannical leader framed by his accusers. In Antonys glorification of the corpse of Caesar, Caesar has been truly reduced to a feminine state. He requires a man to plead his case with society, and the strong figure is accessible and needs the support of the fickle masses.

Show you sweet Caesars wounds, poor poor dumb mouths,

And bid them speak for me. But were I Brutus,

and Brutus Antony, there were an Antony

Would ruffle up your spirits, and put a tongue

In every wound of Caesar that should move

The Stones of Rome to rise in mutiny. (..7-)

Calphurnia whose warning goes unheeded by Caesar demonstrates the impotency of a womans voice. In death Caesars voice, like that of a woman, is no longer heard, and his violated body projects the image mouths which are objects serving as symbols of female sexuality to which Antonys reference to tongues gives additional sexual implications. It is the tongue and mouth that serve as the initial sight of contact when kissing occurs. The sexuality of this image brings further strength to the previous parallel made between the reproductive process and Caesars death.

The transformation of Caesar from a figure of male potency to one of feminine weakness creates a complicated and distorted message of sexuality. Traits become no longer inherently masculine or feminine because the ultimate fate of Caesar merges weakness and strength. The strange paradox of the play is how wounds, a traditionally feminine sign of vulnerability, ultimately become equated with masculinity. Portias decision to voluntarily wound herself demonstrates the awe and admiration which wounds can inspire in the masculine sphere; it is after seeing her self inflicted wounds that Brutus discloses to her the secret plans of the conspiracy. Similarly, it is through his wounds that Caesar is able to eventually to win vindication for his death because they move the crowd to action against the conspirators, allowing for leadership through injury. The sword symbolically represents a phallic-like sign of vitality which leads to the retransformation of Caesar into a figure of masculinity. Brutus acknowledges, O Julius Caesar, though art mightly yet/ Thy spirit walks abroad and turns our swords/ In our own proper entrails (5..4-6). The sword that causes Caesars fatal wounds serves as the instrument that brings an end to Cassius and Brutus. Cassius proclaims in his death Guide thou the sword- Caesar, thou art revenged, /Eve with the sword that killed thee (5..45-46). This conclusion of ultimate victory of the masculine spirit seems the only fitting outcome for Shakespeare to engineer if his play is to be a true reflection of Roman culture. Women hold value only in terms of the services that the provide which advance the interests of the masculine community, and in this case, the conspirators needed grounds to render Caesar inadequate for his position and feminizing him provides a useful mechanism in doing so. The retransformation of Caesar solidifies itself in Octavious declaration to the world that This was a man!, (5.5.75) reinforcing the notion that the masculine spirit will prevail in Roman society.

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Photosynthesis

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Introduction

The process of photosynthesis is vital to humans and all other living organisms

on earth. Through photosynthesis plants use water, carbon dioxide, and light to

supply themselves with food and the rest of the world with oxygen. Although all

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plants carry out photosynthesis, the process by which they do so varies

depending on the plant. The rate at which plants produce oxygen is also

dependent on the plant. Two classifications of plants that differ in the way

they carry out photosynthesis are C plants and C4 plants. C plants such as

soybeans and rice go through two stages of photosynthesis which are light

reactions and the Calvin cycle. While in the light, during the Calvin cycle, C

plants often go through a process called photorespiration when the plant uses O

for the Calvin cycle instead of CO and therefore does not produce food or ATP.

This occurs when the weather gets too hot and dry for the stomata to be open and

rubisco, the Calvin cycle enzyme for C plants, accepts O and it overtakes the

CO concentration . C4 plants such as sugarcane and corn, on the other hand,

have adapted to hot, dry climate so that they do not carry out photorespiration.

The reason C4 plants differ from C plants is because the enzyme used in their

Calvin cycle called PEP carboxylase has a high affinity for CO and is able to

fix the CO concentration and not allow oxygen to overtake it.

We were specifically interested in the rate that both of these plants carried

out photosynthesis when a leaf from each plant was placed under a light. The

amount of oxygen produced, which is a byproduct of photosynthesis, was used to

measure the photosynthetic rate of each leaf. Since C plants carry out

photorespiration when exposed to excessive light, we hypothesized that the C4

leaf would produce oxygen more efficiently. The C leaf that we used was one

from a lima bean plant and the C4 leaf that we used was one from a corn plant.

We believed that the corn plant would have a higher photosynthetic rate when

placed under a light.

Methods

We obtained two leaves, one was from a lima bean plant, which is a C plant,

the other was from a corn plant, which is a C4 plant. We sealed the lima bean

leaf into the leaf chamber so that it was not shaded by the O sensor of the gas

inlet and outlet port holes. We placed a plastic petri dish filled with water on

top of the leaf chamber covering most of the leaf surface. We then inflated the

plastic gas bag with our breath, being careful not to overinflate the bag. After

the bag was inflated we sealed it with the luer lock plug. Since the y-axis

values for the pO and light graphs were already set for us, we proceeded to

click the start button on the computer screen. We then immediately removed the

plugs from the leaf chamber and squeezed the bag to send CO through the leaf

chamber. When the level of O hit 16 on the computer screen we resealed the gas

bag and the leaf chamber. After approximately one minute we used the dimmer

switch to turn on the light and began to observe the changes in O

concentration. We observed this leaf's O production for 5 minutes and pressed

the stop button on the computer screen. Then we highlighted the middle portion

of the graph and used the computer to find its slope. We then removed the lima

bean leaf from the leaf chamber and replaced it with the leaf from the corn

plant. Since we had already inflated the bag with our breath for the first leaf,

we did not need to do it again. We simply went through exactly the same steps

again beginning with pressing start on the computer screen and squeezing the bag

until the O level on the screen read 16. After completing all of the steps and

waiting 0 minutes we pushed stop on the computer screen, highlighted the middle

of the graph, and used the computer to obtain the slope of the line. Then both

of the leaves were taken and traced onto graph paper to obtain the surface area

of both. To figure out the surface area we counted the number of squares that

were entirely inside the leaf. Then, any squares that were intersecting the leaf

margin were given a value of 0.5. We added the values and divided by 4. This

gave us the leaf surface area in cm. Using the slope given by the computer and

degrees for our temperature, we were then able to use equation (1) to figure

out how many ìmoles of O per liter per minute of gas was in the leaf chamber.

(1) y= 10,000x/[(7 + T)/7] x .41 = ìmoles of O/L/min

We took the number we obtained here and put it into equation () to find out the

photosynthetic rate of both leaves.

() photosynthetic rate = 0.047 x y/leaf surface area ìmole O/m/min

Results

After we observed the O production for 5 minutes on both leaves we obtained

graphs that displayed the rate at which each plant produced O. Figure 1 below

displays the result for the lima bean plant and Figure displays the result for

the corn plant.

Figure 1

ʏ

Figure

ʏ

Using equations (1) and () from above we were able to find the photosynthetic

rates for the C plant and the C4 plant. We were able to conclude from these

findings that C4 plants produce O at a more rapid pace than C plants. The

individual data are shown below in Table 1.

Table 1

Plant Type Data Interval %O/min Photosynthetic Rate

(ìmole O/m/min)

C plant, lima bean 5 minutes .08 .18

C4 plant, corn 5 minutes .046 .117

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Gender discrimination

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Discrimination

There are many types of Discrimination, I am only going to highlight just a few. Discrimination is defined as unforgettable or unfair treatment of a person or class of persons in comparison to other who are not members of the protected class because of race, sex, color, religion, national origin, age, physical/mental handicap, sexual harassment, sexual orientation or reprisal for opposition to discriminatory to practices or participation in the EEO process. Discrimination is apart of everyday life, it happens everywhere in all kinds of ways. The main topics that I am going to touch on are Disability, gender, and employment discrimination. These all relate to work places everywhere.

The first topic I am going to talk about is employment discrimination. There is a growing body of laws preventing or occasionally justifying employment discrimination based on sexual orientation. Discriminatory practices include bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, and various types of harassment. The Fifth Amendment has an explicit requirement that the federal government not deprive individuals of "life, liberty, or property," without due process of the law. Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a "liberty" or property interest. The Equal Pay Act amended the Fair Labor Standards Act in 16. It prohibits paying wages based on sex by employers and unions. It provides that where workers perform equal work in jobs requiring "equal skill, effort, and responsibility and performed under similar working conditions," they should be provided equal pay.

Gender discrimination is another problem, such as the work place and school. Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 17 prohibits sex discrimination in any education program receiving federal funds. In 16, the Clinton administration told schools that meeting this so-called "proportionality test" is the only way to avoid getting sued for sex discrimination.

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Unknown

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On a last Saturday, my friend and I went to Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum located near downtown San Jose. Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum was narrowed out about two or three thousand square feet. It didn't seem so big as what we imagined. On the side of the museum there was a pleasant garden filled with sculptures and where the palm trees stand to keep the shade of the sunny afternoon. We hung around the museum for about an hour observing some of the sculptures.

An Egyptian mummy was the first case we saw as we walked into the museum, which caught my eyes immediately. The color of the case was bright that loaded/packed with gold. It had different variety of colors, but it seemed like red and green set up to be the main color. The mummy case also filled with unique images. There were double brown eagles spreading their wings widely that stood side by side of each other. On the left hand of the sculpture was holding a stripe hook versa the other hand with a long decorated stick that crisscrossed each other. There was a head of the snake bore out in front of the forehead. According to my guess, the sculpture was approximate 7'4" tall.

The next sculpture we observed was Nerfertiti. The sculpture portrayed the appearance of Nerfertiti, which was nicely done with paint. The scale and pigment of the paint seemed to fade over time. Nerfertiti looked beautifully just through the sculpture itself. Her eyes were long that matched with her extended two full curves eyebrows equally, her thin red lips, and her petite high nose. I just couldn't visualize how her beauty looks in reality. A glance at the sculpture, I believed it illustrated the true beauty of a woman. Beside her beauty, the expression of her face seemed gentle and grateful. The model of Nerfertiti was about the size of our head, from the top of the head to the shoulder.

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I have discovered the Steele of Hammurabi for the next extra credit assignment. The Hammurabi seemed to make out of hard dark gray stone. It polished and furnished to appear smoothly that brought up the color to be shinny and bright. However, the stone didn't look original because the stone was filled with holes and cracks. There were little yellow writing surrounded the stone. When I first looked at it, I thought the code was written in black. As I walked toward and looked closely at the stone, I saw some yellow pigment among the black color. The Steele of Hammurabi shown the two men, the post of one man was standing, and the other tightly holding a stick was seated in a chair. The Hammurabi approximates 8'1" high and 1'" thick. I believed it must weight over tons.

The last object that I have observed was some of the cylinder seals. I noticed there are many different sizes, shapes, colors, and portrait of images for these cylinder seals. Most of the cylinder seals seemed small that was about my thumb size. There were several different kinds of shapes. I believed it extremely hard and difficult to get these cylinder images neatly carved on the cylinder. With the enchanted color of these cylinders, white, gray, black, orange, brown, and cream, could make the cylinder looked more unique. It seemed to me, each cylinder represented a different period of time since the year was different.

Best of all, the sculpture that captivated me the most was the SETI . This sculpture appealed to be the

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What are the contrasts in character and behaviour between MacBeth and Lady MacBeth?

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What are the contrasts in character and behaviour between MacBeth and Lady MacBeth?

MacBeth is a play written by William Shakespeare, which traces the downfall of MacBeth due to his ambition. MacBeth, the main character, is a nobleman, the Thane of Glamis, as well as a Scottish general in King Duncans army. Later he becomes the Thane of Cawdor and eventually King of Scotland. To achieve this he resorts to violent measures, and murders his way to the throne with the help of his persuasive wife, Lady MacBeth. Lady MacBeth is a woman who cleverly takes advantage of her husbands love for her to persuade him to kill in order to be crowned king of Scotland. Despite this she finds that she cannot cope with the guilt, which eventually leads to her suicide and later, MacBeth dies in battle. Although MacBeth and Lady MacBeth love each other, they grow further and further apart as the play goes on.

Before the murder I realise that MacBeth is very highly thought of in

Scotland for his prowess in battle as he receives many compliments from a sergeant Brave MacBeth,

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and even from King Duncan

Valiant cousin

However Shakespeare then uses the supernatural to tempt MacBeth, who is indecisive earlier in the play, and whose prophecies at this point, when he meets up with three witches whom he had already met

suggest that he will become Thane of Cawdor and later, king of Scotland. MacBeth is

now encouraged to contemplate kingship, although he does not to take any action due

the fact that he has a conscience. However he is beginning to believe it is possible,

because of the prophecies coming true, when he becomes Thane of Cawdor.

And, for an earnest of a greater honour,

He bade me from him, call thee Thame of Cawdor. When Duncan states that Malcolm shall be the next king of Scotland, MacBeth’s ambition is sparked and the idea of killing Duncan is shown by the dark imagery in his soliloquy.

Stars, hide your fires

However, although MacBeth likes the idea he still cannot bring himself to commit murder. This is in total contrast to his wife, who is used by Shakespeare to push her husband. As soon as she receives the letter telling her of the witches prophecies she says decisively,

Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be

What thou art promised.

She shares his ambition and is single minded in her efforts to make MacBeth King In order to do this more effectively she even calls on evil spirits to remove any traces of kindness and generosity from her;

Unsex me here And fill me from the crown to the toe top

full of direst cruelty.

Lady MacBeth plans the murder in detail and will not allow MacBeth to even think of failure. In contrast, MacBeth is indecisive, shown by his weighing up the pros and cons, and eventually saying,

We will proceed no further in this business.

However MacBeth, is accused of not being manly by his wife, and is persuaded to go ahead with the murder showing that his wife is stronger willed. I feel that MacBeths uncertainty about whether to go forward with the plan to murder king Duncan is because he looks ahead towards the consequences, If the assassination could trammel up the consequence,

whereas Lady MacBeth looks no further than the murder.

I see the second act as the turning point in the play as in this act MacBeth finally kills King Duncan and gains the confidence which enables him to repeat the deed later on. Just before MacBeth is to murder Duncan, the supernatural is again used by Shakespeare in the shape of a dagger, to highlight MacBeths guilt and weakness and to show that he still has a conscience.

Is this a dagger which I see before me , The handle toward my hand? Come let me clutch thee.

Because MacBeth still has a conscience during the murder of Duncan he panics and forgets to smear the guards with blood and leave the fatal daggers with them. Even after talking to his wife he still cannot bring himself to return to the scene of the crime and relies on his wife to go back. Although Lady MacBeth, is stronger- willed than MacBeth, she is not as strong as she believes herself to be. I can see this when she has a very anxious conversation with her husband.

Did you not speak, When, Now, As I descended, Ay, Hark

Shakespeare uses a staccato effect to show their guilt and how worried they are.

Directly after the murder of Duncan MacBeth panics and is so shocked that he needs his wife, Lady MacBeth, to tell him what to do. The difference between them is clear in their attitude towards the blood on MacBeths hands after he has killed Duncan. MacBeths imaginative nature is clear in the imagery he uses.

Will all great Neptunes oceans wash this blood

Clean from my hand

However in total contrast to MacBeth, his wife consoles him when she tells him,

A little water clears us of this deed.

I can see that she is practical and can deal with present problems but does not look ahead, which is ironic when I think of the sleepwalking scene.

When King Duncan is discovered to be dead MacBeth is unsure how to react and so becomes over-zealous, killing the guards. Suspicion starts to spread because of MacBeths irrational behaviour. However to distract people and to shift the attention which is on MacBeth, Lady MacBeth faints. It is clear that Lady MacBeth is more practical and clear-sighted and that MacBeth depends on her.

After MacBeth and his wife are crowned King and Queen at Scone, MacBeth becomes more dominant and distant. I am surprised to find that he no longer involves his wife in any of his plans. This next plan is to dispose of Banquo and his son as the witches have prophesied that the descendants of Banquo will be crowned kings of Scotland. Lady MacBeth has not been told of his plans.

Be innocent of the knowledge dearest chuck.

However it is the manner in which MacBeth attempts to kill Banquo and his son which is more important. MacBeth poisons the minds of three murderers and gives them instructions about when and where to kill Banquo and Fleance. This is unbelievably different to when he and his wife were planing the murder of Duncan and shows just how much confidence he has gained. This time he has planned the whole thing himself, but hired others to do the deed. Hence he has become independent of Lady MacBeth.

Despite MacBeths planning of Banquos murder on his own, Lady MacBeth is still the stronger mentally, evident when she tries to calm her husband during a banquet, during which he sees his second vision; Banquos ghost, another symbol of his guilt.

Thou canst not say I did it never shake

Thy gory locks at me.

However Lady MacBeth quickly takes the initiative, saying that MacBeth is ill. She later taunts him for being unmanned, which shows her mental superiority and that she is much more quick-thinking than he is. At this point MacBeth tells his wife that he is at the point of no return and the start of his downfall.

I am in blood

Steepd in so far that, should I wade no more,

Returning were as tedious as go oer

At the beginning of Act Four MacBeth significantly makes a conscious decision to visit the witches, showing me that he is now choosing evil.

I will to-morrow,

And betimes I will, to the weird sisters.

The witches are playing with MacBeth, although he does not realise this!

None of woman born shall harm MacBeth

This seems to guarantee MacBeths position as King of Scotland, as does the next apparition

MacBeth shall never vanquishd be, until Great Birnam wood to high Dunsinane Hill shall come against him.

However the only apparition which worries MacBeth is

beware MacDuff

He now no longer attempts to hide his evil but embarks on a reign of tyranny, for example ordering MacDuffs family killed. MacBeth has become a tyrant totally steeped in evil, considering himself invulnerable.

In contrast Lady MacBeth is now very vulnerable which is contrary to how she behaved earlier in the play. She seems to have gone insane as a result of her guilt which is also exposed, but in a different way to that of MacBeth as she sleepwalks. She constantly washes her hands which refers back to the time when her hands were covered in blood. Although then, she told MacBeth that a little water clears us of this deed she now shows that this is not so.

All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this hand.

By this, I think she means that she can never be forgiven for the sins which she committed earlier. However, the most noticeable form of her guilt is when she sleepwalks and mutters words which have the potential to incriminate her husband.

The thane of Fife had a wife

She is obviously suffering mental anguish and eventually commits suicide. MacBeth has also changed, but in contrast to his wife he has grown colder and more callous. When he hears of Lady MacBeths death he shows no grief, merely saying

She should have died hereafter.

Unlike Lady MacBeth he feels no remorse which is in contrast to the MacBeth earlier on in the play. He realises that life has become mechanical, evident in the repetition of ;

To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,

Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,

To the last syllable of recorded time;

However MacBeth senses the end and his death due to the fact that Malcolm, and the English army are approaching to overthrow him. At this point MacBeth must be anxious and starting to feel his kingdom slip away due to the news of the desertions from his army and realises that the witches were playing with him . However MacBeth still decides to fight to the death and die like a brave soldier. In a sense MacBeth too is contemplating suicide because, although he knows his castle could withstand a siege, he goes out to fight and is killed by MacDuff.

I find the differences between MacBeth and his wife interesting, especially the way their roles are reversed as the play goes on. At the end of the play I see that MacBeth and his wife are viewed alike in death despite their obvious differences of character and behaviour earlier on in the play.

this dead butcher and his fiend-like queen.

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Reasons for Allied Victory

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In 114 the First World War began. What was thought to be a short, quick show of power turned into a four year campaign as the countries of the Triple Entente fought to prevent the Central Powers from taking over mainland Europe. By 117 it seems the war would go on forever, dragging out, with both side appearing equal in fighting power and a trench line stretching from the Swiss Alps to the North Sea. Why is it then that eventually the members of the Triple Entente won the war? Why did Germany declare armistice? The following essay will attempt to answer these questions as well as providing evidence to support the claims made.

When Russia pulled out of the war after a revolution in 117 the war on the Western front took a turn for the worse for the Allies. With the removal of a threat form the East Germany was free to send troops to the Western Front strengthening its hold in the captured areas of France, Belgium and surrounding areas. While this appeared, on the surface, to be a good turn for the German army it was really the beginning of a bitter struggle that eventually led to the defeat of her armies, for although more man-power was able to be dedicated to the battle line the British still maintained naval superiority and the blockade upon German ports and colonies was causing major disruption to supplies, especially food, which greatly lowered the moral of the civilians and the soldiers and caused a general ill-feeling towards the government and the war. This drop in morale and the effect of Allied propaganda can be directly linked to the outbreak of several strikes and rebellions as is shown in the excerpt from 114-18 the World at War, by C, OBrien and A. Merritt; It is almost always the women, whether form lower or better classes, who show their dissatisfaction with the war in bitter scolding and outbreaks of violence. This is understandable however, as it is the women who are expected to cook and cater for hungry families and find themselves unable to do so... Mutinies among disgruntled soldiers also had a part as they lacked supplies of food, clothing, blankets and other necessities to keep them healthy and able to fight the war. This coupled with the unrelenting offensives and counter-offensives made by both sides severely injured the support for the war leading to a much more submissive population and in turn a much more submissive and malleable government.

However it was not just the lack of supplies and Allied propaganda that led to the Germans declaring the armistice and the Allies winning the war. Much of the credit, if it can be called such, lies at the feet of the United States of America. For while they were neutral until the very end of the war they lent great amounts of money to the Allied governments as well as gave aid in the form of supplies, technologies and eventually man-power as well as not giving any help to the Central powers. After the sinking of the passenger liner Lusitania, which carried over one hundred American passengers, when Germany once again began unrestricted submarine war-fare the United States declared War on Germany and its allies and sent one million soldiers to join the battle on the Western Front. A very significant number of men. This announcement of the United States taking active involvement in the war on behalf of the Allies further lowered the German peoples morale as by this time the German soldiers and people were getting very tired of the war and battle-weary and the influx of new, fresh, eager troops made victory seems even further away as is stated in War and Peace Reasons for Allied Victory' The decisive factor, however, was the American intervention. A million fresh troops on the western front gave the Allies overwhelming superiority in manpower...

These two factors were coupled with several smaller ones, one of which being the failure of the 118 Spring offensive launched by Germany in an attempt to break the stalemate, this led to a huge decrease in manpower and again in the morale of the Civilians as again is shown in Reasons for Allied Victory'The failure of this offensive accelerated the decline in the morale of the armed forces and civilians of the Central Powers...

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Another factor was the uniting of the command of the Allied armed forces under General Foch. With a united command there was less bickering and more cohesion to the Allied army, making offensives more effective, with less losses, more often. This was also a deciding factor in the Allied resistance to the spring offensive.

But it is unlikely the Central Powers would have offered armistice if not for the Fourteen points of United States President Woodrow Wilson. The Fourteen Points as they came to be known offered Germany an honourable way out of the war with little in the way of punishment or repatriation. Seeing an almost hopeless situation in the continuing of the military campaign and the easy way out offered by Wilsons Fourteen Points, the Central Powers declared armistice on the basis that the settlement be Wilsonian based heavily on the Fourteen Points and likely to be fair and just to all.

It was for these reasons that the Allies won the war. While no one single cause can be named the above points explain in some detail how the armistice and Allied victory came about, much through the lowered morale of the Central Powers, and why Germany agreed upon the armistice in the first place.

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Fuck You Cunts

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Abortion Has Been One Of This Countrys Most Controversial Topic On Hand

Abortion has been one of this countrys most controversial topic on

hand. But if one sees the constitutional infringement to women by the

restriction of abortion, the torment to the unwanted child and the anguish

society has to sustain,then this topic would not be so debatable. Too many

people do not see the cause and effect of not being able to have abortions.

All human beings are given some inalienable right guaranteed by the

Constitution. One of those privilege is the right to pursue happiness. A

baby can sometimes disrupt a womans pursuit of happiness. Even if she

decides to give it up for adoption, she still has the burden of carrying

the fetus for nine months. Having the option to perform an abortion can

solve that obstacle. Taking away this right would be invading on a womans

constitutional liberty.

The unwanted child also suffers. Most of the time the mother of the

unwanted child is very young and inexperienced or too poor to take care of

the child. The child is usually malnourished, has no medical care, and

gets very little attention or love. The foster care system isnt any

better. Only a small percentage of the children are adopted by suitable

parents. But the rest remain in the foster care system, where there is

little or no personal care. In both cases, the child has a poor education

because of the lack of attention and discipline. He grows up to be

unproductive individual or a menace to society. Many get involved in drugs

and crimes. These individuals are also very violent, lacking morality due

small amount of care they received themselves. In the long run, not only

does the child suffer but also society, who has to tolerate his violent

behavior and crimes.

An abortion can be seen as putting the child out of misery while he

doesnt have the ability to reason or fear.

In short, abortion allows a woman to retain her constitutional rights,

it relieves a would be suffering child out of his distress and it

establishes a safer and more peaceful society. On these grounds, abortion

should be kept legal, and even encouraged to specific individuals, for

benefits to all of us.

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The Automated Labor Distribution System and other innovations by HayCo Consulting and Bar-Net Systems

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The experts at HayCo Consulting have developed and implemented an automated time collection and processing system for the Lubbock Police Department. The system is currently being marketed as the HayCo Automated Labor Distribution System. ALDS includes a custom touch screen overtime/comptime reporting application and a four-tiered supervisor and administrator client/server interface program. Employee identification options for the input terminal include barcode, magnetic stripe or proximity badge systems. The system has been in place for two years, tracking time and attendance for approximately 440 employees, and has resulted in the elimination of one full time clerical position. Additional interfaces to common municipal enterprise systems (e.g. J.D. Edwards) are currently in production.

Additionally, they have designed and market Bar-Net POS - a touch-screen point of sale system, utilizing relational database technology, specifically designed for the bar and nightclub industry. Bar-Net POS provides all standard POS functionality and reporting and additionally provides closed-loop inventory tracking and sales vs. usage comparisons for all liquor and draft beer products. They are currently installing a five-station Bar-Net POS™ system with complete alcohol control system, including a custom touch-screen waitress interface program, integrated credit card processing program and an 80.11b wireless LAN, for a new restaurant in Lubbock's Depot District.

For clients not utilizing automated product control, they developed a custom program to support the Bar-Net Inventory Service. The program uses an electronic scale, barcode reader and laptop computer to generate ending distilled spirit inventory and usage reports based on a detailed input/output analysis and a database of bottle and product weights. The program has been used in the execution of business analysis consulting contracts with resulting reports being provided to the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission and the State Comptroller of Texas.

Other projects which are currently in progress include Accurack, an automated billiard ball tracking and sales reporting device and KegChecker, a device to measure the contents of a partially used draft beer keg through a sequence of timed, pressure and CO flow measurements. Accurack was developed through a joint effort between Bar-Net Systems and Texas Tech University Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering departments.

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Chapter 13 chemistry

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Chapter 1- States of Matter

Gases

Kinetic Molecular Theory

· Model to describe properties of gases

Buy chapter 13 chemistry term paper

· Kinetic=move

· Theory describes behavior in terms of particles in motion

· Model makes assumptions about size, motion, and energy of gas particles

Particle size

· Gases consist of small particles that are separated from one another by empty space

· Because gas particles are far apart, there are no significant attractive or repulsive forces among them

Particle Motion

· Gas particles are in constant random motion collide with other particles or with the walls of their container

· Have elastic collisions-no kinetic energy is lost

· Kinetic energy can be transferred between colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy of the particles don't change

Particle energy

· factors determine the kinetic energy of a particle

· Mass, velocity KE=1/mv

· In a sample of a dingle gas all particles have the same mass but all particles do not have the same velocity

· Because of this particles do not have the same kinetic energy

· Kinetic energy and temperature are related

· Temperature- a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of matter

· At a given temperature, all gases have the same average kinetic energy

Explaining the behavior of Gases

Low Density

· Theory states- great deal of space exists between gas particles

· The rest are fewer chlorine molecules than gold atoms in the same volume Cl=solid Au=gold

Diffusion & Effusion

Theory states-no force of attraction between gas particles

· Gas particles can move easily past each other

· The space into which a gas flows is already occupied by another gas

· This random motion causes gases to mix until they are evenly distributed

· Diffusion- Movement of one material through another

· Move from high concentration to low concentration

· The rate of diffusion depends on the mass of the particles

· For lighter particles to have the same average kinetic energy as heavier particles, they must have a greater velocity (KE=1/mv

· Effusion is process related to diffusion

· Graham's Law of Effusion- States that the rate of effusion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass (GFM)

· This law applies to rates of diffusion

· Using this law you can setup a proportion to compare the diffusion rates for gases

Formula

Gas pressure

· Pressure-defined as force per unit area

· Gas particles exert pressure when they collide with the walls of their container

Atmospheric pressure

· Because the particles in air move in every direction, they exert pressure in all directions

Measuring Air pressure

· Barometer-instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure

· Height of the Hg in the tube is determined by forces

· Gravity pushing down on Hg; Humidity/temperature causes air pressure to change

· An increase in air pressure causes Hg to rise, a decrease it falls

· Monometer-instrument used to measure gas pressure in a closed container

· Flask in connected to a U-tube containing Hg

· Before the gas is released Hg is at the same height in arms

· After the gas is released the height in the arms are no longer equal

· If gas pressure atmospheric pressure the liquid on the left decreases and the liquid on the left increases Pgas=Patm+Phg

· If gas pressure atmospheric pressure the liquid on left increases and liquid on right decreases Pgas=Patm-PHg

Units of Pressure

Pascal (Pa)-Si unit of pressure 1Pa=1N/M

Other units mmHg, torr, atmosphere (atm), psi, kilopascal (kPal)

1.00atm=760 torr=101. kPa=14.7 psi (at 0 C)

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure

· Law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture

· Partial pressure depends on Number of moles of gas, size of the container, temperature of mixture

· It doesn't depend on the identity of the gas Patm= p1 + p + p….

· When gases are made in a lab they are made over water, so the gas is saturated with water

· Pgas=Ptotal-Pwater

· Water pressure will be given to you Practice problems on pg 4-6

· Water pressure will be given to you.

Forces of attraction

· Intramolecular force-Force within atoms, ions, molecules (bonding)

· Ex dispersion, H-bonds

· Intermolecular force-force between atoms, ions, or molecules

· Ex dispersion, H-bonds

Dispersion force

· Weak forces that result from temporary shift of electrons in the electron cloud

· Occurs when non polar molecules are in close contact or collide

· Electrons in the cloud repel each other causing the electrons to have a higher density in one region of each cloud

· Forms temporary dipole; When the dipoles are close together a weak dispersion force exists; Occurs in identical non polar molecules

Dipole-Dipole forces

· Attractions between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules

· Contain permanent dipoles

· Neighboring polar molecules orient themselves so that charged regions line up.

· Forces are usually stronger than dispersion forces

· Pg 4-5 pictures of bonds

Hydrogen bonds

· A dipole-dipole attraction that occurs between molecules containing a hydrogen atom bonded to a small electronegative atom with at least one lone electron pair

· Hydrogen must be bonded to Fluorine, Oxygen, Nitrogen

· H has a positive charge, O has a negative charge so that one molecule is attracted to the O in another molecule

Liquids

Kinetic Molecular Model

· Have a constant motion

· No foxed position so they take the shape of a container

· Force of attraction is greater than in gases so liquids have a fixed volume

Density & Compression

· At 5C and 1atm, liquids are closer than gases because of their greater intermolecular forces holding them together

· Like gases, liquids can be compressed, but only by a small volume because the molecules are relatively close together

Fluidity

· Ability to flow

· Liquids can diffuse through other liquids but at a slower rate than gases because of intermolecular forces

· Liquids are less fluid than gases

Viscosity

· Is the measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow

· The attractive force slows their movement

· Viscosity is determined by the type of intermolecular forces, shape of the particle, and temperature

· Warm-faster flow, cooler- slow flow larger/longer-slow small/short-fast

Surface tension

· Particles in the middle of a liquid can be attracted to particles all around them

· Particles at the surface have no attractive force from above to balance the attraction for below; so there is a greater force pulling down on particles at the surface

· Surface tension- energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount

· Generally the stronger the attraction between particles the greater the surface tension

· Water has a high surface tension because it can form multiple hydrogen bonds

· Surfactants- compound that lower the surface tension of water (break hydrogen bonds)

Capillary action

· A narrow container; surface of water forms a meniscus forces cause this

· Cohesion- force of attraction between identical molecules

· Adhesion- force of attraction between different molecules

· The adhesive force between the water and glass is greater than the cohesive force between the water; so water rises along the inner walls of the cylinder

Kinetic molecular theory

· Are in constant motion

· Have a strong attractive force between particles, this limits the motion, causing more order

· Because this solids have a definite shape and volume are much less fluid

Density of solids

· Particles are packed closely together so they are more dense

· Because most solids sink, except water has fewer particles in given volume

Crystalline solids

· Solid where atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a orderly, geometric shape

· Unit cell- smallest arrangement of connected points that can be repeated in 1 direction to form a lattice

· Shape of a crystal is determined by the type of unit cell

· 7 different crystals on pg 401

· Crystalline solids can be classified into 5 groups based on the type of particles they contain

· Pg 40 table 1-4

· Amorphous solids- particles are not arranged in a regular repeating pattern

· Forms when the motion material cools too quickly and the crystals don't have time to form

Phase changes

MeltingÞsolidÞliquid

· Solids well absorb heat energy and break the bonds that are holding them together

· Temperature does not change as the solid is melting

· Amount of energy needed depends on the strength of that bond

· Melting point- temperature at which the liquid phase and solid phase of a given substance can coexist

Vaporization liquidÞgas

· Once all ice melts the addition of energy increases the kinetic energy of the liquid and the temperature increases

· Evaporation- when vaporization occurs only at the surface of a liquid

· Liquid molecules must absorb energy, break forces of attraction, and enter gas phase ex sweat

· In a closed container water collects above that liquid and exerts pressure on the surface of the liquid called vapor pressure

· Boiling point- temperature at which vapor pressure of a liquid equals the external or atmospheric pressure

Sublimation solidÞgas

· Ex solid iodine, solid carbon dioxide, mothballs, air freshener

· Absorb energy

Condensation gasÞliquid

· Loses energy, velocity decreases when molecules collide they are more likely to form bonds or increase the force of attraction, and changes to the liquid phase

· Reverse vaporization

Deposition gasÞsolid

· Reverse of sublimation energy is released ex frost & snow

Freezing liquidÞsolid

· Energy is lost, velocity decreases bonds form and hold the molecules in a fixed position

· Reverse of melting

· Freezing point- temperature at which a liquid is converted in to a solid

· Is equal to the melting point

Phase diagrams

· Graph of pressure vs. temperature that shown in which phase a substance exists

· Under different conditions of temperature and pressure

· curves separate the regions from one another solid, liquid gas

· On the curve phases of matter exist

· Triple point-temperature at which 6 phase changes can occur and phases of matter can exist

· Critical point- indicates the critical temperature and pressure above which a substance cannot exist as a liquid

Please note that this sample paper on chapter 13 chemistry is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on chapter 13 chemistry, we are here to assist you. Your research paper on chapter 13 chemistry will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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