MONROE DOCTRINE

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MONROE DOCTRINE

The Monroe Doctrine, issued by President James Monroe in 18 became the cornerstone of foreign policy. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams was afraid the British proposal for joint protection of the revolutionary countries was an attempt to head off future acquirement by the United States of any territory still held by Spain, especially the island of Cuba. He urged that the United States act alone in the Western Hemisphere. This argument was part of what was later called the Monroe Doctrine. The doctrine grew out of two diplomatic problems. The first was the small conflict with Russia pertaining to the northwest coast of North America. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams said that American continents were not to be considered as a foundation for colonization by European powers. The more important part of the doctrine was because of fear that the group of European governments commonly called the Holy Alliance would try to reduce again to colonial status that the Latin American states that had recently gained independence from Spain. Monroe's main reasons for drafting the doctrine were the constant threat of European colonization in America.

The doctrine declared that European nations are not to settle new colonies or interfere with existing ones in the Western Hemisphere. Part of the reason for this is that the U.S. did not want to confront European colonies in its attempt to expand across the continent to fulfill Manifest Destiny." The Manifest Destiny was a belief held by many Americans in the 1840s that the United States was destined to expand across the continent, by force, as used against Native Americans, if necessary. Another reason is that the U.S. felt that it should be able to influence the new Latin American republics that had recently become independent. Secondly, in interference of that kind will be seen as an act of war, and the U.S. will fight. Finally, in exchange for staying out of their business, the U.S. will stay out of theirs. It said that it would be unacceptable for European powers to create new colonies in North, Central, or Latin America.

Under President Grant and his successors, the doctrine was expanded. The belief that no territory in the Western Hemisphere could be transferred from one European power to another became part of the Monroe Doctrine. As U.S. imperialistic developments grew, the Monroe Doctrine came to be associated not only with the elimination of European powers from the Americas, but also with the possible extension of U.S. control in the area. This is why the doctrine, although it was not properly used to justify American intervention, was disliked by Latin American nations. Another example of expansion was in 185, President Cleveland, in an addition of the Monroe Doctrine, demanded that Great Britain negotiate a boundary dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela. Another famous addition to the original doctrine is the Roosevelt Corollary. This extension was added when incidents of turmoil and rebellion between countries in Latin America were reported. The corollary stated that if the conflict continued it would force the United States to intervene in order to prevent European intervention. Another example of the extended existence of Monroe's doctrine occurred in 141. Congress met on April 11 and declared a joint resolution verifying the principles of the Monroe Doctrine. This shows how important the Monroe Doctrine has been in American foreign policy.

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The Monroe Doctrine was so established in U.S. foreign policy by the end of World War I that Woodrow Wilson asked for a special exception for it in the Covenant of the League of Nations in 11. By the end of the next decade, the doctrine had become much less important, and they tried to make better interactions with Latin America. Monroe's fear of intervention and by writing the doctrine showed his desire to protect the United States freedom and interests. He was able to see the threat that Europe could cause to our national security. The Monroe Doctrine not only showed us how great of a president he was but also helped our country.

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Bertolt Brecht

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Bertolt Brecht has been hailed as one of the pioneers of 0th century theatre. Through his didactic styles and revolutionary theories on teaching the audience instead of just entertaining them, Brecht managed to alter the general face of modern theatre and style of playwriting through many of his works such as his 1 epic 'Mother Courage and Her Children'. Using such techniques as alienation and historification, he presented his plays without any sense of dramatic lighting or effects, as well as trying to remove any sense of suspense from the audience. Brecht also promoted the use of Epic Structure, a way of narrating a play in which song, dance, and projected photos and music would assist regular speech.

Epic Structure is noted particularly in 'Mother Courage and Her Children'. Each scene opens with a projected message on the stage, which is a synopsis of the coming scene. Some scenes are quite distant in terms of time setting; many years in some cases, furthering the 'Epic' feel of the play by spanning it across large amounts of time in which many different things can change the life of characters. For instance, scene , in which Mother Courage's son Swiss Cheese is killed, is set years after scene , while scene itself does not span those years. Likewise, by the time the play reaches scene , the time setting is ten years after the beginning of scene 1.

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Of all the techniques used by Brecht, the most famous was alienation. Brecht uses his alienation technique well in 'Mother Courage…'. It is essentially a collection of theatrical devices that were created to remove the audience's attention from the emotions of the play and direct it towards consideration and analysis of the message and themes that were being presented. In the case of 'Mother Courage…', the idea was of war being a form of business that only the powerful will benefit from. Some of the devices employed by Brecht were commonplace on other completely unrelated genres of performance, but he brought them together to create an effective means of alienating the audience.

Most prominent was the use of a narrator. The narrator would take an active part in the play, but would not be a part of the action in the same way as the other players. He or she would speak to the audience directly, which inhibited the chances of the audience becoming consumed in the pseudo-reality of the story. While no actual narrator character is featured in 'Mother Courage…' the beginning of each scene begins with the aforementioned synopsis, which told the audience about time and place setting, as well as the details of what happened in the scene. This removes all doubt or wonder in the audience's mind of what will happen, in effect 'ruining' the story for them. Because they know what is going to happen, they are forced to observe how the already known story is presented, rather than becoming involved in watching the story unfold. Even at the very beginning of the play, the first scene opens with

Spring 164. The Swedish Commander-in-Chief Count Oxenstierna is raising troops in Dalecarlia for the Polish campaign. The canteen woman Anna Fierling, known under the name of Mother Courage, loses one son.

This statement alone sets the time and place, introduces the main character and reveals what happens in the climax of the scene, yet the actual play does this as well. Because it was all revealed at the beginning, the audience focuses more on the structure and presentation of the scene rather than the story.

Songs feature sporadically in 'Mother Courage…' and where they do, they are used to convey a simple point that could have otherwise been presented through normal speech. This effectively takes the audience's focus off the story and directs it to consideration of the techniques and messages being conveyed, as they are left wondering why Mother Courage has started singing suddenly. This is illustrated in Scene 7, the entirety of which is just one song sung by Mother Courage. She sings a song that basically means 'war is a horrible thing to exist, but it's great business for me so I'm happy with there being a war on'. It would be quite strange for a person to make up a song filled with clever rhymes integrating the message they are trying to convey just to get the point across in real life, so when it happens in Scene 7, the audience in bewildered and perhaps even confused. It seems this is exactly what Brecht was trying to achieve. Perhaps he believed that the audience would have started being consumed by the story and needed to be pulled away, so he made a character burst into song unnaturally to make the audience stop and consider what was going on.

Brecht also made good use of Historification in many of his plays. This involved drawing parallels between the subject matter on hand in the play and historical events of the past. Brecht stated that the idea behind 'Mother Courage…' is primarily

"That in wartime the big profits are not made by the little people. That war, which is a continuation of business by other means, makes the human virtues fatal to even their possessors. That no sacrifice is too great for the struggle against war."1 As a medium to show this, Brecht has set the play in the 0 years war, one in which his homeland of Germany was heavily involved with, thus creating something a German audience could easily relate to. However, 'Mother Courage and Her Children' was written in 1, just recently after the First World War and at the beginning of the second, both of which Germany were involved in. This presents the question of what was Brecht's message to the German audiences? They would have experienced these recent wars, so did Brecht choose to set his war focused play in a war that took place 00 years earlier?

The 0 years war was important to the German people as it had previously been the most destructive war ever fought on German soil. It is also plausible that Brecht used a war that was not as recent to further the historical and epic aspects of his piece. He may have considered that the first world war was too recent to have gained status as an important piece of German history yet. Along with this, Brecht used it because he was trying to move away from his own didactic communist writings such as 'The Measures Taken' into a looser presentation of new Marxist political theories. These provided the basis for his new 'Epic Theatre', which he was trying to promote in 'Mother Courage…'.

By inventing and using all of these techniques, Bertolt Brecht has directly altered modern playwriting and influenced many writers and directors who have followed him. His techniques, such as Alienation and Historification both lent themselves to making Epic Structure a very popular form of writing stories which are presented in plays and even films today. They have been adopted the world over as standard, instead of the radical changes they were when they were first introduced, making him a true pioneer and innovator of the world of dramatic arts of the 0th century.

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Articles of confederation

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Articles of Confederation Vs. Constitution

Articles of Confederation Vs. The Constitution

As everyone knows the Articles of Confederation were very unsuccessful. The

purpose was actually to establish a "firm league of friendship" among states. However

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what it actually did was cause more problems between the states. As response to the

constant bickering, a group of delegates planned to ratify the Articles. In turn, they

actually created the Constitution.

On March 1, 1781, the Articles of Confederation were created. This document's

purpose was to provide equality among states. The Congress, however, was said to be

powerless to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. There was no executive to

enforce acts of Congress, no national court system, and no power to make states obey

articles.

In the Articles of Confederation an amendment can only be passed with the

consent of all of the states. A nine out of thirteen majority is also required to pass laws.

Soon states were organizing their own military forces. The new problems demanded the

need for a new, effective system of government.

Even though the Constitution is said to be a better document than the Articles of

Confederation, there were still problems. First of all, Rhode Island wasn't even

represented. Only fifty-five of the proposed seventy-four delegates even showed up at

the convention. they also proposed and argued about many different forms of

government. This new Constitution greatly increased powers of the central government.

It also did not include a bill of rights.

However, of the fifty-five men that were present, many of them were very

intelligent and had a lot of public experience and prestige. They were all very

experienced and involved in government in many ways. In fact, George Washington was

the president of the convention and James Madison was the "Father of the Constitution."

They all agreed that the Senate was to have equal representation and the House would

have representation based on population at the convention. They also made "bundles of

compromises" that accounted to a lot of what government is today. They also

determined voting days, the capital, and their first president.

In conclusion, even though the Articles of Confederation are no longer used

today, they were vital in the creation of the Constitution. The country used it to learn

from their mistakes. They formed a very well-operated government.

Please note that this sample paper on Articles of confederation is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Articles of confederation, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Articles of confederation will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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International Economics

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International Economics

Enlargement and Deepening of EU

The original six members established the European Community in 157 West Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg. The main reason behind this unification was a specific response to a series of problems, which confronted a group of countries in Western Europe in the immediate aftermaths of 145. Unification offered Western Europe a means of strengthening itself against both super powers united states and USSR. Stanley (p.0) argued that "the main motivation for European Community integration…is the argument of scale, or put more bluntly, the attraction of sizeism" In 145 it was easy to relate size with success, Europe's political failure could be attributed to smallness, which military victory against Germany could be accredited to the sheer size of the new super powers. "Economic studies of the advantages of scale, were simply taken as proven" Stanley (page ). From this we can understand that the development of the European Union is seen mainly in terms of enlarging and deepening, as we have seen the development in the last 45 years of the EU from six countries to fifteen, and from a Common Market Zone to a single market zone.

Enlargement is the process by which countries join the European Union. Article 4 of the Maastricht treaty specifies, "Any European State… may apply to become a member of the Union…" Timothy (p.148) Table .1 in Appendix A will show you the different stages of the enlargement process from application to accession.

On balance, enlargement should be economically beneficial for the Union because "…it is likely to lead to better performances (economies of scale, higher growth and investment, more technological innovation, stronger global corporate players)" Avery & Cameron, 1, (p.141) not only that but the addition of more than 100 million people, in rapidly growing economies, will boost economic growth and create jobs in both old and new member states. "…Increased size of the internal market combined with the relatively higher growth of the CEECs (productivity gains over the medium term in the applicant countries will be higher than in the EC-15…)" (p.141) The extension of zone of peace, stability and prosperity in Europe will enhance the security of all its peoples and this is supposed to attract large volumes of portfolio investment. In the process of enlargement of the Union both group of countries joining, and the EU-15 are going to be faced with trade creation from a cheaper source and trade diversion from a cost producer. "the applicant countries trade mostly with existing members…" (p.14) so from this we can understand that the enlarged Europe is going to gain more through trade creation than loose by facing trade diversion. Andurton in 15, suggested that "existing countries are afraid that their markets will be swamped by cheap imports from these countries…specially the agriculture and textile markets, where the EU has traditionally imposed high tariff barriers to protect domestic economies". It is not only the cheap imports they should be afraid of it is also the influx of cheap labour from CEECs which can create a disequilibria in the labour market. Another dynamic economic gain arises from enlarged Europe is increased competition between firms. An enlarged Europe will eliminate restrictions on trade between EU-15 and the new member countries. Domestic industries will therefore face greater competition than before from firms in other member countries. Competition is believed to encourage innovation, reduce costs of production and reduce prices. Anderton contradicts this point by saying "…competition is reduced in the long run. Competition will derive the least efficient firms out of business…over time, the oligopolistic nature of competition will be recreated" (p.561) Movement of labour and capital can also pose problems. According to Anderton "there is a fear that capital would move to newly joined cheap labour countries whilst workers would move in large numbers from these countries to existing member countries, attracted by much higher wages" After looking at several sources on advantages and disadvantages of enlargement, the threats to existing members are mirror images of the opportunities to applicant countries. Even Breuss (000) said in his report "the enlargement debate in the EU and in the Central and Eastern European countries centres on different priorities, the earlier the better…in the east, while the west takes cautious attitude towards enlargement". Some economists like Avery and Cameron argue the point that "The Economic gain to be reaped from enlargement will depend primarily on the conditions in which the Single Market is enlarged". According to Breuss time is an important factor in the process of enlargement, and his main argument is all in all earlier enlargement will bring the poor CEECs more rapidly to EU standards. Enlargement will involve an increase in EU budget expenditures and in receipts. It is too early to assess the overall impact on the EU budget. The greatest impact of enlargement is likely to occur in the common agricultural policy and in the structural funds, the two largest components of EU spending. But most economists like Henig (17) and Avery and Cameron (1) contradict this point by saying most of the structural fund is going to be raised by redistributing the current structural fund which is been given to Greece, Spain, Portugal and Ireland. Breuss (000) believes in the notion that "Integrating rich with poor is never an easy business", so if the EU 15 wants a to become an EU 7 it has to withstand the consequences, and he believes that "deepening is one of the tools to have a successful enlargement".

Deepening is the integration of the EU both in economic and political terms.The main aspects of deepening fall under six targets first one is Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), secondly The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), thirdly Sectoral and Regional Adjustment, forthly Development of Freedom of Movement (Goods, Capital, Services, Labour), fifthly Competition Policy, and finally Tax Harmonisation.

The deepening framework consist of a single market and a single currency thoughtout all "euroland".The common foreign and security policy (CFSP) that covers all matters relating to the security (internal security, immigration and asylum) of the Union, should aim on framing a common defence policy, an objective that the Treaty of Amsterdam defines clearly.

Enlargement is a priority and is indeed the current vision of the Union, clearly stated in the political Agenda 000. By increasing the number of the members of the EU

Major political benefits to the Union and to peace and security are expected. In the economic field too, although problems related to adjustment strains from the developing integration process, especially since acceding countries are at a lower level of economic development, have to be addressed. The objective must be to ensure that the full potential of enlargement is developed to strengthen the European model, i.e. "a Europe built on a set of values shared by all its societies and combining the characteristics of democracy with those of an open economy underpinned by market forces, internal solidarity and cohesion."

It is quite obvious that enlargement and deepening although interdependent come at odds with each other. Common currency in so many different countries with different growth rates and developments could cause chaos. Even using fiscal policies wont be the remedy as inevitably Europe is going to be separated into "weak" member states absorbing all aids (in term of grants and credits) and powerful ones. BSE (mad cows disease) was an indication of the need of the EU to prioritise to matters like agriculture and trade freedom, as they could cause great damage..

Enlargement and Deppening are two different stategies that are based on the same factors but focus on different aspects. I believe that both are needed in order to make "euroland" an equal competitor land, it is asserted companies across Europe must be able to compete on equal basis; "for example germany imposes heavy obligations on employers on matters like health and safty while the spanish are less stringent" The Economist ed. Volume 57 number 800, this puts the German companies at disadvantsge. The playing field is not level, so enlargeing EU with its current situation might increase the imbalaced competition level. So to truly create a single market that works "harmonisation of economic policy" should be the first priority. The EU could become really massive and even reach 6 member states that would result to % increase in the current population and 4% increase in land occupied but if it not really united, there is no point. There is another contrasting debate by Avery & Cameron that "enlargment processes could actually speed up the process of integeration, or deepening" they drew this conclusion by looking at previouse enlargments which were followed by deepening of the community.

There is no one answer on which should take place first enlargement or deepening, because widening makes deepening more difficult; deepening in turn makes widening more difficult, since it makes the criteria for entry into the Union more demanding. Even if it can be shown that successive enlargement have on the whole quickened the pace of integration, but now the union is faced with enlargement on unpredicted scale. Sloman (000) said, "It is extremely difficult to assess this arguments. Also, many of the advantages and disadvantages are very long term, and depend on future attitudes institutions, policies and world events, which again can't be predicted"

SINGLE CURRENCY

Economic and monetary union is the latest stage in the evolution of European integration; it is indeed the latest manifestation of deepening. It involves the replacement of local currencies in individual Member States with a single currency the euro. Basically from the first of January 1 the first 1 countries (see appendix B for list of countries) to join European Monetary Union (EMU) will have their local currency exchange rates fixed at set rates to euro. In order to achieve the transition that took place in January 1st 00, the economies of member states will be required to converge, financial prudence will be enforced, government debt reduced and low inflation maintained, Bainbridge argued that EMU is "…the boldest economic experiment of all times…"

The European single currency operates in a slightly different form than the European Currency Unit, the ECU, was introduced alongside the European Monetary System (EMS) to provide a weighted average of the EMS currencies. What made the ECU different than the euro is that ECU was not hard currency with coins or bank notes, and although one ECU will equal one euro, the ECU is the average of all EMS currencies, on the other hand euro is the average of the 1 countries that joined the EMU. After 1 January 00, if you are trading with an EMU member country you will be obliged to use the euro.

Prior 1 ERM the exchange rate mechanism was created to set bands for EMS. It only allowed currencies of member states to fluctuate with in certain bands. From January 1 it was replaced by EMU, which introduced fixed exchange rates for the 11-member states- so currencies will no longer fluctuate within set bands. As well as the single currency 1 is the year when the European Central Bank was created, the ECB is responsible for setting interest rates across the 1 countries which are in the EMU, their responsibility includes the right to authorize issues of bank notes and Member States can only issue euro coins with approval of ECB. "…the transfer of monetary power to ECB has raised issues of sovereignty" this is an understandable phenomena which is inevitable, according to Bainbridge "without EMU the Union's economic future would have been dominated by its privileged access to central and eastern Europe." What Bainbridge is saying is EMU is seen as the means of containing German economic hegemony in the longer term.

The single currency is said to provide the citizens of its members with many practical advantages, according to the European Commission it is believed to bring a more efficient single market, once the single currency is in place. For the single market to wok smoothly, exchange-rate adjustments must not be allowed to disrupt trade or investment through their unpredictable impacts on profitability. Even a slight adjustment of the exchange rate will affect the relative wealth of citizens and purchasing power of consumers. So now as the single currency is in place, there will be no more disruption caused by exchange rates. Not only that but for the first time it will permit a genuine comparison of the prices of goods and services across frontiers. This will benefit both consumers and businesses, it will increase competition and boost trade at the same time. This point about increased trade could be contradicted; it is true indeed the single currency will be very transparent on price differences

According to Chesworth and Pine-Coffin (18) "the single currency will promote investment and employment" this suggestion is drawn from the fact that the European Central Bank is going to have a close watch on inflation rates and interest rates, everything being equal this will create an environment where businesses and individuals are more likely to invest and save for the future.

Another obvious positive impact of the single currency is the elimination of transaction costs; this is the costs of foreign-exchange transactions or the cost of exchange-rate cover. According to euro website on European Monetary Union "…transaction costs are far from negligible they are estimated to be 0. to 0.4% of the Unions gross domestic product." This elimination of exchange-rate cost is not only believed to lower cost for member countries, but also increase trade according to Anderton's (15) expectations of the single currency.

The European Union is the world's leading trading power. Now there is high expectation on the euro to become one of the main exchange and reserve currencies, like the dollar and the yen. It is expected that Europeans will be able to pay for their imports, and invoice their exports from third countries in euros. According to the European Commission "EU equipped with an internationally recognized currency, Europe will be better able, together with its US and Japanese parties, to strive for greater stability in the international monetary system." The main question now lies in whether or not the EU is an optimal single currency area or not?

There is lots of scepticism on the benefits of the single currency, as Griffith and Wall (001) said, "the advantages of adopting the euro seem encouraging, but the advantages do not come without costs". A single currency means irrevocably fixed exchange rate according to the European Commission. Some argue the point that exchange rate instruments cannot be used to deal with difficulties with in the EMU countries as the interest rate is in complete hands of ECB. Some economists like Anderton feel the trade and cost advantage of the single currency have been grossly over-estimated, they believe it is not much to be gained. Loss of sovereignty is also a political issue, which can't be ignored; Anderton (15) argues the point "…independent central bank is undemocratic." This argument has been supported by many other economies like Fishers " Governments must be able to control the actions of the central banks because governments have been democratically elected by the people, whereas an independent bank will be controlled by a non-elected body." This is loss of sovereignty, a transfer of power from London to Brussels, this could point could actually be contradicted again it doesn't really matter if interest rates are set in UK by Bank Of England or by European Central Bank it doesn't make a difference for the general public.

What we could actually support is the motion that if Britain joins the euro it will face loss of independent monetary policy. This basically mean countries with in the monetary union accept the monetary policy implemented by the ECB. However, this one size fit all monetary policy might implemented by the ECB might not suit all countries equally. Griffith and Wall support this point by giving an example "let us assume there is a recession in one country but not in the other. If that country is outside the euro (e.g. UK) the countries central bank could reduce interest rates and stimulate economic activity. However the ECB is unlikely to respond in this way if the recession is only country specific because this will raise inflation throughout the union." The ECB will only alter its interest rates when target inflation rate with in the euro zone rises above %. This is one of the arguments why UK doesn't join the single currency but sometimes it is difficult to understand why exactly, it is understandable that the UK wants to control its own interest rate but according to Griffith and Wall UK is one of the countries which change in interest rate will take up to three years before full impact in the economy is noticed. That is not the only reason why UK should not join the single currency, UK's Business cycle is not entirely convergent with business cycle in Europe (see appendix C) So joining the euro area and accepting a Europe wide monetary policy might well impose heavy economic costs on the UK.

There is an interesting economic ideology, which is mentioned in Begg (001) it is an optimal currency area defined as "a group of countries better off with a common Currency than keeping separate national currencies". Is the euro zone an optimal currency zone? Professor Robert Mundell has identified three attributes that might make countries suitable for an optimal currency area first one is countries that trade a lot with each other which is true for most EU countries, secondly the more similar the economic and industrial structure of partners the more likely it is they face common shocks, which can be dealt by a common monetary union, thirdly the more flexible the labour market with in the currency area, the more easily any necessary changes in competitiveness. Conversely, Begg suggested that "countries gain the most by keeping their monetary sovereignty when they are not that integrated" so it is best for UK to stay out of the euro, but is it really even thou Britain has control over interest rates can't it really afford to increase interest rates any more as the sterling is already sky high.

Appendix A EU Membership-From Application to Accession

Table 1.1

1. A European country submits an application for membership to the council of the European Union.

. The Council asks the Commission to deliver and Opinion on the application.

. The Commission delivers its opinion on the application to the council.

4. The Council decides (unanimously) to open negotiations for accession.

5. Negotiations are opened between the member States on the one hand, and each applicant individually on the other hand.

6. The Commission proposes, and The Council adopts (unanimously), positions to be taken by the union vis-à-vis the applicants in accession negotiation.

7. Agreement reached between Union and applicant on a Draft Treaty of Accession.

8. Accession Treaty submitted to the Council and the European Parliament.

. The Commission delivers another Opinion, on the Accession Treaty.

10. European Parliament delivers its assent to the Accession Treaty (by absolute majority).

11. The Council approves the Accession Treaty (unanimously).

1. Member States and applicants formally sign the Accession Treaty.

1. Member States and applicants ratify the Accession Treaty.

14. After ratification, the Treaty comes into effect on the day of accession the applicants become Member States.

Appendix B

Twelve euro zone countries, source www.wilkiecollins.demon.co.uk/euro/eurocountries.htm

Members of the European Union in the euro

ɨ᠃Austria

ɨ᠃Belgium

ɨ᠃Finland

ɨ᠃France

ɨ᠃Germany

ɨ᠃Greece

ɨ᠃Ireland

ɨ᠃Italy

ɨ᠃Luxembourg

ɨ᠃Netherlands

ɨ᠃Portugal

ɨ᠃Spain

Appendix C

Source Griffiths andWall (001)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bainbridge T. (000) "The Penguin Company TP European Union", nd Edition, Penguin Books

Henig S. (17), "The Uniting of EURPE", ROUTLEDGE

Avery G. and Cameron F. (1), "The Enlargement of the European Union", Sheffield Academic Press

Anderton A. (15), "Economics", nd Edition, Causeway Press Limited

Begg D. (000), "Economics", 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill

Chesworth N. and Pinne-Coffin (18), "The EMU Fact Book",

Kogan Page Limited

Griffiths A. and Wall s. (001), "Applied Economics", th Edition, Printice Hall

Sloman J. (000), "Economics", 4th Edition, Printice Hall

Enlargement and the Finality of European Integration www.jeanmmonnetprogram.org/papers/00/00f0801.html

Basic Arguments of Enlargement www.europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/arguments/index

European Monetary Union www.france.diplomatie.fr/frmonde/euro/eu.gb.html

The Single European Currency www.keele.ac.uk/socs/ks40/labeuro.htm

Where the EURO is used www.wilkiecollins.demon.co.uk/euro/eurocountries.htm

Breuss F ed; (Jul 000), "The role of time in EU enlargement", Euromoney,

The Economist ed. (000), "Single Market In Question", volume 57, Number 800

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YMCA

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YMCA. Young men's catholic association is an organization that was founded in 144 in London by Sir George Williams and his fellow men. The YMCA movement then took off and today YMCA's serve all men women and people of any religion. There is thousands of YMCA's operating all over the world affecting the lives of millions of people every year. The YMCA movement spread to Australia and was very successful in finding a home in the lives of Australians and Australian culture. A summery of the different facilities that YMCA provides for the community is below.

The YMCA Bankstown takes on the YMCA's goals and values, which are consistent through out all YMCA canters nation wide. " The YMCA works from a base of Christian values to provide opportunities for all people to grow in body mind and spirit." The YMCA is always trying to increase its role with in the community and strives to continue to act as the country leading body in "the healthy development of all individuals, strengthening families and developing caring communities. The YMCA is a Christian Organization and will continue to express this through all their programs and activities in a practical way. All the programs that the YMCA offer are based on improving "body, mind and spirit" in a completely non discriminatory environment providing activities for and catering for people of all races religions and also providing for people with disabilities. The YMCA exists to serve the Community by offering programs using highly skilled and qualified staff with the use of first-rate equipment and facilities.

In Australia YMCA employees 547 people but also has but the effective running of the centres wouldn't be possible without the assistance of volunteers. The YMCA encourages working together as a team for the running of the centres and the participants in the programs of the centre. The administration staffs of a YMCA centre require sound training, proper remuneration and modern practices. The financial management of YMCA centres is also essential for the effective running of the centre although financial maximisation is not a primary goal of the YMCA. YMCA in Australia will continue to grow and expand through membership program participation and volunteer work.

Although YMCA's in Australia have an annual turn over of $77080000 all YMCA's act as non profit organizations and any surplus that the centre has at the end of the year will be channelled back into the organization or be given to less financially sound centres. A volunteer board of directors controls the YMCA. In Australia there are 44 boards of directors with an average of directors per board. The YMCA employees personnel in all the areas of its different programs. There are few full time positions it is most common to be part time or casual work. A summery of this information is shown below

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There is often positions available for casual work in the programs run at the Bankstown centre example gym instructors. There are rarely full time positions available and when a position become open or is created it is usually filled internally. To obtain a full tome position at a YMCA centre it is often necessary to enter at a lower level and work up to a full time paid position. The day care and child care programs at the Bankstown centre employee several full time fully qualified personnel. They also employee one operations manager or general manager to oversee the smooth running of the centre, there is also paid administration staff. Bankstown YMCA has a volunteer team that assist in fundraising and activities for the YMCA. There is always a need for volunteers in; Activity specific areas gym instructors, centre committees, leaders on holiday camps, volunteer visits with elderly people in aged care facilities, assisting people with disabilities in accessing mainstream recreational facilities.

There is potential for a work placement at the Bankstown YMCA. They provide for one placement a year and there is currently no one confirmed for the placement in 004. During the placement the applicant will be give set tasks and will assist in the running of the centre and the centres activities. This could be a very worthwhile and productive placement.

Additional information was obtained at http//www.ymca.org.au/

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Video Game Violence

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"In the game Carmageddon, players run down pedestrians, including elderly women with walkers. If a player completes all levels of this game, he or she will have killed a maximum of ,000 people" (Mediascope Press ). Violence in video games has been a topic of debate in recent years, with concerns on whether violence in video games has an aggressive effect on children. Violence in video games makes children more aggressive and hostile; in addition, "video game violence makes children desensitized to violence, which can lead to violence at school and home" (Barnes 1). Video games that incorporate violence shouldn't be played by young children. Young children don't fully understand the difference between fantasy and reality. On the other hand, older kids know the difference between fantasy and reality, and right and wrong. Therefore older children should be allowed to play video games that contain violence.

Some people say that kids are attracted to video games not so much by the violence, but because the games present puzzles or problems to solve (Sherry 1). If this is true, then why in a 18 survey "80% of the video games preferred by young people contain violent or aggressive content; of these, 1% depict violence against women" (Mediascope Press 1). Also "in a survey of 00 fourth graders disclosed similar results 50% of the respondents chose games with fantasy or human violence as their favorites" (Mediascope Press 1). Finally,

"Two studies at the Psychology Department at the University of Missouri-Columbia concluded that men have a more hostile view of the world than women. The results from both studies are consistent with the General Aggression Model, which predicts that exposure to violent video games will increase aggressive behavior in both short term and the long term"(Anderson 1).

Other people argue that virtually every new video and computer game released today carries a rating that is both informative and easy to understand, and it seems clear that many parents are using the ratings to guide their purchases or rentals (Lieberman 1). These people also believe that by establishing a rating system with "M" for mature; will prohibit children from buying these games (Ryan 1). This is simply not true,

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"In a test using subjects aged 1 to 15, with parental consent, video games rated "M" for mature were purchased in 7 different cities. These subjects were instructed to give their appropriate age if asked by retailers. None of the subjects were prevented from purchasing "M" rated games because of their age" (Ryan ).

"The FTC studied the marketing strategies of 118 video games rated "Mature" found that 60 of them…targeted children under 17"(FTC report qtd. in Ryan 4). "In a "sting" performed by the Attorney General's staff their study found that 85% of the children, aged 1 to 16, that were sent out to purchase "Mature" rated video games were able to do so" (FTC report qtd. in Ryan 4).

This study shows that children are being able to purchase these video games without the consent of the parent, which also shows that parents aren't being responsible for what video games their children are playing.

John Sherry, a professor at Purdue University claims that of the 7 studies he found, outcomes were mixed. In some instances there was no effect on aggressiveness,

while other studies showed moderate effects. There was a trend for the more violent games to have bigger effects, but none of the effects would be called dramatic (Sherry 1-). A test conducted by Wired Magazine revealed that "the cognitive aggression test did reveal a higher measured aggression from those who played the violent game than from

those who played the non-violent game. The same test reveals higher aggression in male subjects" (Wired qtd. in Brown 4). This test shows that video game violence does have an aggressive effect on people, and that males tend to show higher aggression when playing violent video games than females do. "The cognitive aggression test measures the speed at which participants could read aloud words on a computer screen. According to the test, cognitive aggression was higher if the participant read aggressive word (such as "murder") more quickly than non-aggressive words (such as "consider")" (Wired qtd. in Brown 4). In another study by the Contemporary Pediatrics, "the majority of the studies show that children do become more aggressive after either playing or watching a violent video game" (Canadian Journal of Psychiatry qtd. in Mothering 1).

"Parents who buy video games for their children say they know what the ratings are, and if any violence is in the video games that their children play" (Anderson 1). Statistics from the National Institute on Media and the Family's revealed that,

"Teens who play violent video games do worse in school than those who do not. Only 15% of teens think their parents know about video game ratings. % of

teens say their parents routinely check ratings. 1% of teens report that their parents have ever prevented them from buying games due to their ratings. Also, youth who prefer violent video games are more likely to get into arguments with their teachers and are more likely to get into physical fights, regardless of gender" (National Institute on Media and the Family qtd. in Ryan ).

John Sherry, a professor at Purdue University believes that video games represent fantasy, while television more closely imitates real life (Sherry ). On the other hand, "video games are active, while television is passive. Video games require attention, while television does not" (Sherry ). Also, "it is no longer the video game character killing his or her enemies it is now you killing your enemies; it is the player who is choosing to commit violence; the addictive nature of these games often leads to the player inundating themselves with violent images, thereby teaching aggressive solutions to conflict situations" (Ryan ).

Violence in video games has become an increasing concern in our country. People are naive in thinking that video games that depict violence don't have an affect on children, by making them more aggressive and hostile, or by leading them to delinquency

and failure in the future. Violence in video games makes children more aggressive and hostile; in addition video game violence desensitizes kids to violence, which can lead to violence at school and home. Video games that incorporate violence shouldn't be played by young children. Young children don't fully understand the difference between fantasy and reality. On the other hand, older kids know the difference between fantasy and

reality, and right and wrong. Therefore older children should be allowed to play video games that contain violence. In conclusion if more restrictions aren't put on video and computer games, then the children of the future are going to grow up with heightened aggression and delinquency thus will lead to more school shootings, rapes, and murders than ever before.

Please note that this sample paper on Video Game Violence is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Video Game Violence, we are here to assist you. Your research paper on Video Game Violence will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Violence

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Many people today believe that children don't see or concern themselves with what they see and hear in the way of family violence. Some even believe that they will put out of their mind or forget the arguments and fighting that goes on in the home. They DO care and see the violence and will not easily forget things such as yelling and screaming at each other or mom and/or child being hit. They in fact don't loose sight of what they have seen. In certainty children who have observed domestic violence have shown that it can terribly exert influence upon them

Many studies have been done over the years on the effects of domestic violence on children and all have shown that the children go through considerable harm. Thus these children need a lot of help to rebind from the effects of violence. The sad part of domestic violence is that children most often enough feel that they are the blame for the violence and that it is up to them to restore peace to the family. This is not true, as the child can NEVER be the blame for the acts of violence done by adults.

Some of the short-term effects on infants would include, sleep disturbances, developmental delays, lethargy, physical neglect, and a fearful reaction to loud noises. Toddlers on the other hand can show increased illness, severe shyness, decreased self esteem, hitting, biting, and trouble in preschool or day care. School age children also show some of the same effects as toddlers such as increased illness and hitting. They also display stealing, lying, nightmares, eating disorders, self-mutilation, reduction in school marks, substance abuse, and the need to be too perfect. More often than enough the older child becomes the caregiver for the younger children.

Some of the longer lasting effects would be that a large percentage of children from domestic violence grow up to be abusers themselves. Boys in particular tend to abuse the women close to them as well as their children. Girls tend to take on more of a victim role in that they tend to attract abusive partners.

Some of the most violent perpetrators claim to have been abused in early childhood. It is important to note that being abused; as a child does not mean that they will grow up to become abusers. A few ways you can help a child deal with domestic violence would be to encourage the child to talk about anything that might be bothering them. One of the most important things to tell a child is that domestic violence is NEVER their fault. Encourage the child to seek out support networks such as friends, teachers, relatives, counselors, or neighbors. It is also very important to tell them they are special and not alone.

Please note that this sample paper on Violence is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Violence, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Violence will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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