The Significance of the Insignificance in Photos

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The Significance of the Insignificance in Photos

Upon examination of a photograph by Walker Evans and one by Jewel Stern, the viewer can easily see how the photographers use ordinary scenes to display the continuity and monotony of everyday life and the insignificance of the "little people."

"Building Facade," a 6 ¾" x 8 ½" gelatin silver print by Walker Evans, taken in 14, is a black and white photo of what appears at first glance to be just a picture of a building with some people in front of it going about their everyday business. The photo looks as if it was taken from across the street, as if Evans was in the third or fourth floor of another building. The shadowing in the photo makes the bottom right corner of the picture look really dark and the rest of the photo is semi-dark, with the focus of light being just left to the center of the photo, emphasizing a worker unloading a truck. Ironically, the area that the light is focused on is the only area of the photo that is blurry. Besides the worker, there are other people who are probably just pedestrians and shoppers. The bottom floor of the building is all stores and the rest of the building is just rows and rows of windows. The building looks dark and gloomy, towering over the people, casting a huge, dominating shadow on them. Although the photo looks as if it is just a random, true-to-life representation, a hidden meaning lies behind it'a meaning similar to the one behind "Tosca Bakery" by Jewel Stern.

"Tosca Bakery" is an 8" x 1" ecta-color type C print of a 18 bakery window. The photo looks as if it was taken from a position right in front of the window, with no focal point. But because it is picture of a window, the reflection from the glass makes the entire picture look blurry. At first, one might think that this is just a bad picture, but after speculation, one can see that Stern purposely wanted the picture to look blurry'that is why it is a photo of a window. Inside this window, like inside almost any bakery window, one can see different types of cakes on display on the bottom shelf. However, the viewer tends to notice the many rows of Looney Toons characters, directly above the cakes. Neatly lined up are numerous figurines of Sylvester, Bugs Bunny, Speedy Gonzalez, and various other well known characters from the cartoons. The browns, yellows, and similar earth colors of the characters' clothing stand out to capture the viewer's eye.

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Similar to "Building Facade," "Tosca Bakery" appears to be a simple photo of what people see in their ordinary, everyday lives'both scenes that anyone can see on any given day. However, a closer look at both photos reveals the artists' intentions at taking the photographs. When looking at "Building Facade," the viewer's eyes move in a direction from left to right, starting at the top left corner, and take in the continuous rows of window after window. Similarly, in "Tosca Bakery," the same type of row after row (this time of Looney Toons characters figurines) takes the viewer's eyes. Both artists seem to be depicting the monotony of life. By taking scenes that are already so common to everyday life and adding a touch of something so repetitive (the windows and figurines), the artists put an emphasis on the triviality and insignificance of life.

Unlike the "Tosca Bakery," "Building Facade" has people in the picture. These people are going out their daily activities, the shoppers in the shadows and the worker illuminated. However, they are tiny compared to the grandiose size of the building. The people are barely noticeable, taking up about a half inch of the picture in comparison to the building, which takes up the entire photograph. Evans could be trying to convey the idea that people are insignificant'since they look insignificant in this photo (even the title does not allude to the people). The worker, who is an important part of American society, is illuminated, making it seem as if he is important. However, his image appears blurred and obscure, which also contributes to the idea of insignificance. Therefore, one might interpret this effect to be saying that the job that one holds is trivial. People work for a living, to support their families so they can have a nice life, but if the work they do is trivial, then perhaps the reason why they work'life'is trivial also.

This same idea of triviality can also be seen in the "Tosca Bakery." The display in the window shows how commercial America is. A bakery is marketing toys for a known cartoon production. But shouldn't a bakery sell just baked goods? So why the unnecessary accessories? One might perceive this photo to be a representation of what a money market America has become. The United States has come to a day in age where places like car dealerships have to entice its customers by having live radio broadcasts and free food, and similarly, a bakery has to have toys to sell to bring in the little kids who will then ask mommy to buy some cookies. This form of marketing shows how the United States has become a place where the major concern is how to make more money; forget about the well-being of the people, just focus on more profits. And when businesses get that frame of mind, people like the worker and the shoppers (like those in Evans's "Building Facade") are the ones who get looked over, the insignificant, unimportant ones.

Although both photos differ in color, location, and time period, they both appear to be replications of seemingly insignificant aspects of life while actually conveying messages of seemingly high importance'the monotony of daily life (which is a result of the level of importance that is placed upon business and economy) and ultimately results in the insignificance of the people.

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Maya Angelou: Influence of her life in her writing.

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Maya Angelou's works were highly influenced by the instability of her childhood, her experiences as a mother, and the challenges of being an African American woman growing up in 0th century America. Angelou's major themes throughout her writing were inspired by the dream of overcoming the struggles that were ever-present in her life. Her struggles only made her into a stronger, independent woman who cares for people.

Maya Angelou was born April 4, 18, in St. Louis, Missouri, as Marguerite Johnson. When Angelou was about three years old her parents, Bailey Johnson, a naval dietician, and Vivian Johnson, sent Maya and her brother to live with their grandmother in Stamps, Arkansas. While Angelou was growing up in Stamps, she realized what it was like to be a little black girl in a world dominated by white people. Maya was conditioned to believe that white girls led better and easier lives than African American girls did. Regardless of the society and attitude surrounding Angelou's lifestyle, her grandmother instilled pride and confidence in Maya, which would help her and guide her for years to come.

After five years of being apart from their mother, Maya and her brother were sent back to St. Louis to live with her. The happiness surrounding the reunion with her mother quickly disappeared when Maya was raped by her mother's boyfriend at the age of eight. Following this traumatic incident, Maya did not speak for nearly five years. Maya's mother was unable to deal with the depressive state her daughter was in, so she sent Maya back to Stamps to live with her grandmother. Slowly, Angelou began to gain her pride and confidence back with the continuous help of her grandmother's close friend, Mrs. Flowers.

In 140, she was once again sent back to live with her mother, now living in San Francisco. Life with her mother proved to be too hard for Maya, so she ran away to live with her father and his girlfriend in his trailer. When Angelou realized life with her father was no better, she turned to living in a yard of old, beat up cars that served as houses for other homeless children. Maya did not go back to live with her mother for one month. Angelou's rough childhood caused her to believe she had to grow up quickly and she forced herself into maturity. Angelou became pregnant at the age of 16 and gave birth to her son, Guy.

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After the birth of her son, Maya lived an adventurous life filled with failed marriages, drug use, prostitution, and a journey to find a "home", a place to belong. Most importantly, however, was her incredible journey as a mother. Maya struggled to develop a relationship with her son throughout his life, because she was not around for parts of it. It was not until the early 160s that Maya began to write her awe-inspiring poetry and books. In her life Maya has been a waitress, actress, writer, dancer, activist, journalist, and teacher.

The difficulties Maya faced in her childhood forced her to put on a strong front. She became very independent because she was unable to rely on anyone in particular throughout most of her life, other than herself. The difficult life of Maya Angelou and her work are completely intertwined.

Maya's rough and eventful life made fine inspiration for her writing. Maya wrote a multivolume autobiographical narrative consisting of five books. These works are I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Gather Together in My Name, Singin' and Swingin' and Gettin Merry Like Christmas, The Heart of a Woman, and All God's Children Need Travelin' Shoes. Her autobiographical works went in order as to the events which occurred in her life.

The first volume and perhaps the most obviously autobiographical, is I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. The name of this book was inspired by a poem written by Sir Lawrence Dunbar called "Sympathy." This volume covers Maya Angelou's childhood. The story follows a young girl, also named Maya, through her childhood up until the birth of her son, also named Guy.

In I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Maya deals with the difficulty of being a little black girl in a time when the world was dominated by white people. She expresses her realization of this white supremacy when she says "I was going to look like one of the sweet little white girls who were everybody's dream of what was right in the world"(Angelou 4). Along with dealing with this realization, she and her brother, Bailey, were sent away to a strange place by their parents, holding on to their identification tag, which said "To whom it may concern- that we were Marguerite and Bailey Johnson Jr., from Long Beach, California, en route to Stamps, Arkansas, c/o Mrs. Annie Henderson"(Angelou 6). Just as Angelou and her brother Bailey were sent to live with their grandmother in Stamps, so was Maya and her brother, also Bailey. After living in Stamps, Maya and her brother were sent to San Francisco to live with their mother. The book continues to reiterate Angelou's life until the birth of a son. Just as Angelou's childhood ended with the birth of her son, Guy, the volume ends with Maya's son.

The next volume of Angelou's autobiography is Gather Together in My Name. This volume covers the struggles of being a teenage mother and of being forced to grow up instantly. At the opening of Gather Together in My Name Maya is 17 and is the mother of a two month-old fatherless son. Maya introduces herself in the book by saying, "I was seventeen, very old, embarrassingly young, with a son of two months, and I still lived with my mother and stepfather"(Angelou ). In this line Maya expresses her embarrassment and discomfort of being a teenage mother.

Gather Together in My Name also explores Angelou's days of prostitution and heroin addiction. Angelou briefly worked as a prostitute for a pimp disguised as a love-struck gambler, and it was in that period of her life in which she became addicted to heroine. The most alarming mother-son incident in Gather Together… was when Maya left her son with a sitter while she went to work as a prostitute. When she returned for her son a few days later he had been kidnapped. Her son was finally returned to his mother, untouched, and it was then that she realized that her son was her responsibility and not just a "beautiful appendage of [herself]"(Angelou 16). From this point on, separation with her son became a recurring theme in her writing.

Gather Together In My Name closed with Guy and Maya returning to the safety of Maya's mother's house. Maya had experienced the horror of heroin addiction and she said, " I had no idea what I was going to make of my life, but I had given a promise and found my innocence. I swore I'd never lose it again"(Angelou 181). Maya was determined not to disappoint herself or her son ever again by lowering her standards of life.

The third volume in Angelou's autobiography is Singin' and Swingin' and Gettin Merry Like Christmas. This book is one of two transitional volumes on Maya's journey to self-acceptance. It covers about five years of Angelou's life from the ages of about to 7.

The main drama in Singin' and Swingin' and Gettin Merry Like Christmas is between Maya, the mother, and Maya, the actress. When Maya decides to leave her son with her mother to pursue her acting career, with the company of "Porgy and Bess," she chooses her career over her son, which caused a rift between the two later on. Angelou realizes that she is putting Guy in the same position she was put in as a child, when her mother left her to live with her grandmother.

The past revisited. My mother had left me with my grandmother for years and I knew the pain of parting. My mother, like me, had had her motivations, her needs. I did not relish visiting the same anguish on my son and she, years later, told me how painful our separation was to her. But I had to work and I had to be good. (Angelou 1)

The subject of parental abandonment was familiar to Maya Angelou. She too was sent to live with her mother and was abandoned by her mother. Singin' and Swingin' and Getting' Merry Like Christmas deals with a more serious emotional side of Angelou instead of just an autobiographical volume.

The fourth volume is The Heart of a Woman. This volume reveals Maya's experiences as a performer, activist, and journalist in the late 150s to early 160s. It treats Angelou's marriage, involvement with the civil rights movement, and once again her relationship with her son. It also touches on her own writing.

The main theme in The Heart of a Woman however was Maya's relationship with her son, Guy, and the similarities it had with her relationship with her mother. There was a point in the book, when Guy went to New York to live with his mother again, where it showed Guy's resistance to Angelou's attempts to make a family again. Maya discussed the tension between the two when she wrote, "'The air between us [Maya and Guy] was burdened with his aloof scorn. I understood him too well'"(Bloom 6). It hurt Maya to see what her son as he was because she understood what he was feeling.

In The Heart of a Woman, Maya travels a lot and she strengthens her public identity, becoming a coordinator in the civil rights movement and a professionally recognized dancer and actress. She also for the first time in her narratives, begins to talk about herself as a writer. "If I wanted to write, I had to be willing to develop a kind of concentration found mostly in people awaiting execution"(Bloom 186).

The Heart of a Woman ends with the separation of Maya and Guy once again. Guy, a student at the University of Ghana, is moving into a dormitory. " 'I closed the door and held my breath. Waiting for the wave of emotion to surge over me, knock me down, take my breath away' "(Bloom 186). Maya feared for her child to be on his own because she was scared when she had to grow up and go off in to the world.

The fifth and final volume of Angelou's narratives is All God's Children Need Travlin' Shoes. This volume picks up right where The Heart of a Woman left off. This book takes place primarily in Ghana and deals with her early attempts in the 160s to return to her ancestral home of Africa. Angelou dedicated the book to Julian Mayfield and Malcom X, who were also both passionately and earnestly in search of their symbolic home.

All God's Children Need Travelin' Shoes continues with the common theme of searching for a home, a place to belong. Maya wrote about her idea of home "We [Maya and Guy] had been each other's home and center for seventeen years. He could die if he wanted to and go off to wherever dead folks go, but I, I would be left without a home"(Bloom 05).

As a whole, All God's Children Need Travelin' Shoes recounts the events that brought Angelou to the realization and eventually the acceptance that there is and unreachable distance between Africans and ancestral Africans. Those events were similar to Angelou's own experiences in Ghana, trying to get in touch with her own heritage.

All God's Children Need Travelin' Shoes ended with Maya leaving Ghana. Maya not only leaves Ghana, but in doing so leaves Guy there to live his own life. Like the four previous narratives this on ended with a mother-son configuration.

In the end, Maya Angelou's works were highly influenced by the instability of her childhood, her experiences as a mother, and the challenges of being an African American woman growing up in 1th century America. Maya's life and work are so fully intertwined that throughout her five volume narratives she chronologically followed events, which occurred in her life, in the order in which they occurred. Most of the characters in the books also shared the same names as their real life counterparts.

Maya Angelou speaks numerous languages fluently, including French, Spanish, Italian, and West African Fanti. She has also traveled abroad to Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. She worked as a journalist and has been honored by the academic world, receiving the Yale University Fellowship Award, being names a Rockefeller Foundation Scholar in Italy, and has 1 honorary degrees at different colleges across the country. Maya is also a renowned professor of American Studies at Wake Forest University. Among some of her other accomplishments are, being named Woman of the Year in Communications, by the Ladies' Home Journal and nominations for the Pulitzer Prize and Tony Award.

Maya Angelou's incredible journey though life has inspired so many people through her writing. Her poetry and personal narratives are representatives of herself as an inspiration to all people, especially black women looking to survive sexism, racism, and/or bad childhoods. It has also made her a strong loving individual who accepts all people. In an interview Angelou said, "I am human and nothing human can be alien to me"(Schafer).

Works Cited

Angelou, Maya. All God's Children Need Travelin' Shoes. New York Vintage Books, 11.

Angelou, Maya. Gather Together In My Name. New York Bantam Books, 175.

Angelou, Maya. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. New York Bantam Books, 170.

"Angelou, Maya." Microsoft Encarta. Online Encyclopedia 00. Available http//encarta.msn.com. 11 February 00.

Angelou, Maya. Singin' and Swingin' and Gettin Merry Like Christmas. New York Bantam Books, 177.

Angelou, Maya. The Heart of a Woman. New York Bantam Books, 18.

Bloom, Harold editor. Modern Critical Views Maya Angelou. Philadelphia Chelsea House Publishers, 1.

Schafer, Nancy Imelda. "Empirezine." Online. Spyder's Poetry Empire. Available http//www.empirezine.com/spotlight/maya/maya1.htm. 10 February 00.

Williams, Nancy E. editor. Readings on Maya Angelou. California Greenhaven Press, 17.

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Mathematics

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Mathematics is an essential language used in science to quantitatively describe natural and social phenomena and to expand systematic thinking.

Faced with the increasing complexity of modern society, particularly in the 1st century, the scope of mathematical applications is being further extended to the processing, analysis, and preparation of diverse information. Therefore, capable mathematicians and research manpower well trained in mathematical thinking are in critical need, as the global competition in science and technology becomes more and more intense.

In response to such needs from the society, the Mathematics Department of POSTECH aims to foster teaching and research manpower capable of diverse mathematical applications, striking a harmonious balance between research and education as well as theory and practice.

Already popular with math educators, according to the Los Angeles Times, the new book, Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics offers insight into the background that all mathematics teachers need to succeed. The author demonstrates the necessary profound understanding of mathematics through an in-depth analysis of Chinese and American elementary school teachers and their classroom teaching practices. The described differences and their implications tell an eye-opening story.

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The heart of the book analyzes a study that asked Chinese and American elementary mathematics teachers how they would handle a variety of exercises. Extreme differences in the results dramatize the Chinese versus the American learning environments and signal the need for reforms in teaching training. The book explores how Chinese teachers deep understanding of basic mathematics contributes to their students success, and it proposes that teachers in the U.S. have difficulty developing such understanding. The central message is that the quality of knowledge gained, for both teachers and students, is more important than its quantity.

This book may be of particular interest to teacher trainers and college faculty who teach mathematics to future teachers and future parents, according to its foreword by Lee Shulman, head of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics offers an intriguing view of teachers mathematical and pedagogical knowledge.

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--Cornel West, professor of Afro-American Studies, Harvard University

Bob Moses, one of the most important voices in the civil rights movement,

is now on the creative edge of leadership again. In this innovative new book,

he shares stories from the civil rights movement and the Algebra Project

to show us why math literacy for all children is a key next step in the

ongoing fight for equal citizenship.

--Marian Wright Edelman, president, Childrens Defense Fund

An almost legendary civil rights organizer in Mississippi during the 160s,

now blazing trails in education, Bob Moses tells a powerful and compelling story,

paying tribute to a grassroots organizing tradition that is often ignored. As we enter

the twenty-first century, he shows that the lessons of the civil rights movement

have important application today.

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This is a marvelous book, moving, challenging and novel. A visionarys

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Cultural Marketing

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With a diverse population existing in the United States today our country is a salad bowl of different cultures, each one unique in its own respect. Culture, distinguishing one societal group from another, includes beliefs, behaviors, language, traditions, art fashion styles, food, religion, politics and economic systems. Through lifelong and ever changing processes of learning, creativity, and sharing culture shapes our patterns, of behavior and thinking.

A culture's significance is so profound that it touches almost every aspect of who and what we are. Culture becomes the lens through which we perceive and evaluate what is going on around us.

The cultural and social environment affects how and why people live, and behave as they do which affects customer buying behavior and eventually the economic, political, and legal environment. These changes which make up for this cultural and social environment are the style of clothing, what type of foods they eat, religious beliefs, and the type of education, just to name a few.

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Most people don't stop to think about the effects of the cultural and social environment it has on them because in most countries this is a way of life. They don't have time to think about how it may be changing or how it may be different for other people. It is about survival.

As a marketing manager you would have to understand cultural lifestyles to sell certain products to certain cultural groups. Managers have to pay close attention to cultural trends or their product will not sell. For instance in Japan the leading washing powder in the United States, which is Tide, which gets out stains when used with hot water may not work in Japan, since they use cold water to wash with. A different slogan for Tide would be like, cleans all clothes in any water temperature may be a better selling strategy for Japan.

This is a big challenge for managers who deal with these cultural and social environments when planning strategies, especially for international markets. Also a marketing manager would know that a diet product or low calorie product in most third world countries would not be very popular or in demand. As a manager gets more involved with marketing concepts he or she will find attractive opportunities and develop profitable marketing strategies in the community and abroad.

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The War on The Western Front

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Many people originally thought that World War One would be over by Christmas 114, so it came as a shock when a year passed. Two. Three. Four. Four terrible years of stalemate, endless tragedy, devastating effects on families, many deaths and life altering experiences. Also, most people believed by 118 that a war like the previous one would never take place again, and that it would be the War to end all Wars.

False advertisements lead people to believe the war was exciting. Recruitment posters resulted in men feeling it was their duty to join the army, and men who didnt join were often looked down on.

The war was extremely different for generals and soldiers, and there were huge changes in Warfare, leading to stalemate. Noone was used to trench warfare, and life was nearly as dangerous in the trenches as it was in No Mans Land.

World War One seen the introduction of many new things. Weaponary had advanced, and was distributed to the Armies. These new weapons were suited far more for defence than attack, and included grenades, more powerful artillery and the machine gun. As I have previously said, gas attacks were very effective and would have devastating effects particurlarly mustard gas, which would kill thousands of men at a time. They became a lot more common as the war progressed, and from the years of 115-118, there were 185,706 casualties relating to gas attacks and 5,8 deaths. Also, a few months into the war, when trenches had started being dug, barbed wire was set up which was a defence measure and machine guns came into effect. Towards the end of the war, cavalry charges were no longer common and horses were mainly used to transport supplies. Tanks were first used in the Battle of The Somme (From 116 onwards) yet were very primative and not very reliable, firstly due to them breaking down a lot and secondly because of lack of speed and manoeuvrability.

Help with essay on The War on The Western Front John Dale describes the battlefield as terribly muddy. Conditions were appalling, and were not suited for quick attacks. Advancing troops couldnt hold on to the ground they won, and were pushed back. These appalling conditions had an enourmous effect on the speed of soldiers, slowing them down as they would try to run and in consquence end up slipping and stumbling because of lack of grip. This lead to troops moving slowly, and in effect becoming easy targets to machine gun fire. This caused many deaths in World War One. Soldiers would be Sucked into the Quagmire, as source J describes once soldiers had been sucked in, they were trapped making it impossible for them to get out. Thousands of men would be sent accross No Mans Land, resulting in a massive slaughter of infantry.

Another major reason to the war lasting so long was because of too much emphasis on attack. As the French General Foche had said, focusing on defence would have been a better plan- defence was stronger than attack. Falkenhayn, the German General expressed his viewsstating no matter how many soldiers were used or materials, attack plans miserably failed because tactics werent right. Tactics were extremely poor, leading to many British casualties and deaths. Even towards the end of the war, there was still too much emphasis on attack and not as much on defence. As a result, noone was winning the war, soldiers just continued to die- hence the 4 year stalemate. Noone was capable of breaking this stalemate.

Many people may have percieved Haigs confidence in his army to be pure arrogance as he believed the Battle of The Somme would be easy, and perhaps a simple case of capturing the enemy trenches and rebuilding them. His main strategy was to wear the Germans down. A large number of men were killed under Haigs command, and he stressed The attacks are to be pressed, regardless of loss. He could have changed tactics after witnessing the devastating first day of the Battle of the Somme yet he persisted with original tactics. Perhaps if he would have changed tactics, learning from his mistakes the war would not have lasted until 118. Haig believed in 117 that Germany was within 6 months of the total exhaustion of her avaible manpower. Yet, as Lloyd George had previously predicted, the war came to an end in 118.

Men in the British army began to lose confidence in their officers, and the majority of soldiers became disillusioned- they were appalled and struck with disbelief at the amount of deaths, particurlarly as an incredible 57,000 Britons were killed or wounded on the first day of the Battle of the Somme.

Had communication technology been more advance, a lot of deaths may have been avoided. When soldiers had left their trenches, verbal communication was impossible because of the heavy noise of machine guns firing. Source B shows troops on their own, perhaps unsure what to do. If Walkie-Talkies had been invented (as said In Source I), Generals would be able to direct troops what to do, and perhaps battles would have been more successful. Source B shows an advertisement, promoting the war, and trying to recruit more soldiers, as volunteers seemed to be the only way of going about involving more British men- Britain was in desparation for more soldiers.

Many soldiers minds had been corrupted, and seeing the deaths of other soldiers (such as Wilfred Owen had in Source H) had a huge emotional and psychological impact on the troops. Many felt they couldnt cope, and their fate was similar they were exhausted, traumatised and no longer had the motivation or willigness to fight- they simply wanted peace.

Finally, on 11th November 118, the war on the Western Front was declared over Britain and France gaining victory.

In conclusion, the main factors that made the War on the Western Front continue for so long was all because of not enough emphasis on defence, poor conditions on the battle fields, in No mans land and the trenches, awful tactics and unadvanced technology. World War one caused more deaths than any other war, thus being called The Great War. .

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Images of Africa in 'The River Between' and 'Things Fall Apart'

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Images of Africa In 'The River Between' and 'Things Fall Apart'

The colonization of Africa enforced peoples of different cultures, who had lived practically separate, and who probably fought wars against each other, to accept the same political boundaries, common citizenship, one national name and a unified administration. It is a fundamental fact that the process of colonization overwhelms the whole culture of the society it possesses, inevitably leading to a hybridization of that culture. This not only applies to countries on the African continent, but all countries where occupation and suppression for economic gain has taken place. Different writers at different times have attempted to supplant the impressions of the African experience and stereotypes, portrayed by writers such as Joseph Conrad and H Rider Haggard, with their individual vision of a complex society in the process of coming to terms with the legacy of Western colonial oppression. A legacy that had forcibly divided the continent into manageable units to suit the colonizing powers, enabling them to establish political and social control. This process of divide and rule even after independence results in conflict. 'The River Between' written by Ngugi in 165, two years after independence, parallels some of the political events happening at the time of writing, with the events in the years he is writing about. Setting the novel between two mountain ridges emphasizes the antagonism between the two native groups and their irreconcilable belief structures.

"When you stood in the valley, the two ridges ceased to be sleeping lions united by their common source of life. They became antagonists. You could tell this, not by anything tangible but by the way they faced each other, like two rivals ready to come to blows in a life and death struggle for the leadership of this isolated region."

Ngugi also wrote a play 'The Black Hermit' which is concerned with stamping out tribalism and was produced in 16 marking East Africa's debut in drama. The antagonisms at that time between the ethnic groups comprising the Kenya African National Union, and the Kenyan African Democratic union resulted at independence, in a 'quasi-federal society with seven provinces each with their own authority, which only worked out its differences in December 164 to become a unitary, one party state, and a republic.' The contradictions and antagonisms created by the process of colonization are still realities in contemporary Africa.

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Fanon postulates that the first step for a colonized people in finding a voice and an identity is to reclaim their own past. The initial literary reaction to this is a relative over production, taking as a theme a 'cry of protest' addressed in such a way as to either ingratiate himself with, or reproach his oppressor. To do this the writer writes in the language of the colonizing power, effectively affirming his assimilation of that culture. The next stage the writer arrives at is a remembrance of his origins. In this the writer appeals to the native peoples to remember who they are, recalling the past to emphasize his conceptions. However, returning to the past is impossible, he is no longer a part of that culture only, but also that of the colonizing power. Succeeding this is the stage Fanon considers to be the beginning of a national literature, the 'literature of combat'. This is the clarion call of the writer to the people to defend their culture, his attempt to become the 'mouthpiece of a new reality' but any struggle whether political, military, or the struggle for enlightenment, irreconcilably changes the culture you are trying to defend. The traditional stories, rituals, customs and philosophies that form the ideology of a people change and evolve over time, and they can be manipulated and adapted to suit the situation, and to mould the consciousness of that society. Under these influences all society's can be considered to be hybrid. On this basis, and in the light of his own experience the writer has set himself an impossible task and he can only present an individual ideal, creating a pre-colonial version of his own nation. It is not only the literature, but also the painting, sculpture, music, drama and dance of a nation that represent the perceptions of the culture of a nation at a given time.

Whilst agreeing that contemporary issues are legitimate themes for the novelist, Chinua Achebe in "The Role of the Writer in a New Nation" states 'the novelist's duty is not to beat this morning's headline in topicality, it is to explore in depth the human condition. In Africa he cannot perform this task unless he has a proper sense of history.' Achebe has designated himself an educator writing to teach his readers that

"their past with all its imperfections was not one long night of savagery from which the first Europeans acting on God's behalf delivered them".

The novel 'Things Fall Apart' attempts to do this using the themes of tribal traditions, proverbs, folklore, and the philosophical and political concepts, of the Ibo people, and the changes that occur with colonization. Both authors are not writing a history, they are writing a fictitional representation of the past in an attempt to reclaim it. Ngugi uses many of the same themes, but in 'The River Between' greater emphasis is placed on religion and education. At the time of writing both novels were attempting to challenge the hegemony of the colonizing power. In the second half of the nineteenth century the continent saw a rise in the activity of Christian missionaries, especially after the abolition of the slave trade and growing interest in other types of trade. The missionaries established schools originally intended to train local helpers, but they later served European colonial administrations and commercial concerns by preparing low-level functionaries. In 'Things Fall Apart' these functionaries are derisorily named 'Kotma' and the treachery, corruption and betrayal that they display is highlighted when the six leaders, Okonkwo amongst them, are imprisoned for the destruction of the church. This highlights the process of the pacification of the people undertook by the colonizing power. The increase in the fine from two hundred to two hundred and fifty cowries emphasizes the corruption and shortcomings of these natives.

Ngugi attended the mission-run school at Kamaandura in Limuru, Karinga school in Maanguu, and Alliance High School in Kikuyu. During these years Ngugi became a devout Christian. Later he rejected Christianity, and changed his original name in 176 from James Ngugi to Ngugi wa Thiongo. This is significant in that the main theme of 'The River Between' is one of deeply rooted religious conflict. The Kameno ridge symbolizing the continuation of indigenous cultural traditions such as circumcision and polytheism, the Makuyu ridge, Christianity and a British educational system. Christian missionaries attempt to outlaw the female circumcision ritual and in the process create a terrible rift between the two Kikuyu communities on either side of the river. The people are divided between those who believe in the Western Christian education and the opportunities it will offer, and those who feel that only unquestioned loyalty to past traditions will save them. Waiyaki the main protagonist is placed between the two trying to reconcile his sense of responsibility as the saviour of the Kameno traditions, and a rising belief in the value of the British educational system, as a result of his father sending him to the school at the Siriana mission, and so subjecting him to the colonizing influence.. This inner conflict is prevalent throughout, further complicated by his growing love for Nyambura, the daughter of Joshua, a convert to Christianity who fervently preached against the old ways. The author depicts his predicament in such a way as to involve the reader in making value judgments, which from a euro centric view would invoke sympathy and understanding for Waiyaki, but from the viewpoint of a native could be considered to be a betrayal. A view that is subtly enforced throughout the narrative, one of the more obvious ways of doing this appearing early in the text, written in both English and the native language.

"The oilskin of the house is not for rubbing into the skin of strangers"

At the time of writing this could equate to Fanon's 'clarion call', emphasizing the betrayal of the people not only by the colonizer but also by the colonized. In 'Things Fall Apart' Okonkwo far from being converted to any part of the 'white' man's culture actively fights against it and after his seven years of exile comes to realise that this encroachment in the form of the church, government, judicial system and trade has fragmented the traditional way of Ibo life. Achebe successfully creates a character who can be seen as exemplifying a traditional Ibo worldview with all its positive and negative aspects. His portrayal of a Okonkwo's thoughts are a means of revealing his feelings and responses, and is an invitation by the writer to see things from a his point of view. Achebe shapes his life and his death by suicide to parallel the process of colonization, the 'falling apart' and the destructive compromises the indigenous culture and ideology is forced to make. The tempo of the narrative stays constant throughout leading to a climax that descends on the reader with the same force and speed with which the colonizing power descended on the land.

Ngugi is an active campaigner for the African language and form. And has made a conscious choice to write in his mother tongue as has the Nigerian writer Obiajunwas

Wali believing writers should not go 'whoring after foreign gods'. Other writers acknowledge that the choice of English may in part, contribute to the death of the mother tongue, but any diachronic study of a language will trace changes in the language over time, and given the escalating use of the English language it could be presumed that they face a continual challenge. A return to the native language can be seen as an attempt to restructure attitudes to the indigenous culture and create a link to those people whose lives have continued to be conducted in their mother tongues. Nigeria has as many as 400 indigenous mother tongues and three widely used link languages. Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba as well as English. Achebe distinguishes his writing from the writing of other English language novelists by introducing the rhythms, speech patterns, idioms and other verbal nuances of Ibo.

" In literary writing the dominant language and its discursive forms are appropriated to express widely differing cultural experiences. Chinua Achebe (quoting James Baldwin), noted that the language so used can bear the burden of another experience and this has become one of the most famous declarations of the power of appropriation in post-colonial discourse."

The third person narrative provides a voice that conveys the sense of order and harmony in the rhythms and rituals of the clan before the coming of the white man, conveying the sense of native Africans speaking and living in a genuine native African living situation, whilst ensuring the meaning remains clear. African literatures have been influenced to a remarkable degree by the continent's long tradition of oral artistry.

"As Edward Sackey observes, Ngugi and other African writers depend on the oral tradition of Africa to deform the received Western novelistic pattern in order to challenge our received notion while our African identity is also affirmed, thereby freeing Africa from the negative image in which others have created us".

Achebe uses folklore legend, myth and proverbs to point out the indifference, selfishness and stupidity of man, and to portray the traditions and customs of the clan The story of the bird Eneke-nti-obi and the wily tortoise feature prominently, as does the descriptions of the treatment of a guest and the sharing of the kola. The folktales are often employed for social commentary and instruction and also serve as a potent means of affirming group values and discouraging antisocial behavior. Whilst Ngugi doesn't use the didactic animal tale in his novel he places great emphasis on the myth surrounding the activities of the gods at the beginning of creation,

"This land I give to you, O man and woman. It is yours to rule and till, you and your posterity"

The two novels looked at are representations of 'Africa' and as such must be viewed as constructed images that need to be interrogated for their ideological content. In 'The River Between' there is undoubtedly a political message whereas in 'Things Fall Apart' the underlying theme is one of pathos. Ella Shohat claims that the reader should constantly question, and that representations in one sphere effects other spheres of representation, particularly the political one.

"The struggle to speak for oneself cannot be separated from a history of being spoken for, from the struggle to speak and be heard."

Edward Said in his analysis of textual representations of the Orient in 'Orientalism' emphasizes the fact that representations can never be exactly realistic. Whether Achebe and Ngugi have been realistic or not they have both achieved significance in what are considered to be post colonial literatures.

"Post-colonial literatures, which were not considered to be part of the canon, found themselves able to represent their own worlds, their own local cultures with an immediacy often denied so-called Universal literature. They appropriated the techniques and the genres of literature and made them work for African forms of representation.

Please note that this sample paper on Images of Africa in 'The River Between' and 'Things Fall Apart' is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Images of Africa in 'The River Between' and 'Things Fall Apart', we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom research papers on Images of Africa in 'The River Between' and 'Things Fall Apart' will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Gandhi

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He maintained the unity of all people under one God and preached Christian and Muslim ethics along with

the Hindu. He gave up Western ways to lead a life of abstinence and spirituality. His efforts led the British to

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of the most influential people in India. Although he was religiously erudite and politically active, Gandhiji

proved to be one of the greatest social leaders of all time.

As a social leader, Mahatma Gandhi influenced many people all over the world. His philosophies

and ideas inspired and encouraged others to undergo a social transformation. He maintained the unity of all people under one God and preached Christian and Muslim ethics along with

the Hindu. He gave up Western ways to lead a life of abstinence and spirituality. His efforts led the British to

imprison him several times, but so great was his following that his threats to fast until death - usually forced

his release. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi also known as Mahatma, "great soul", Gandhi or Bapu, was one

of the most influential people in India. Although he was religiously erudite and politically active, Gandhiji

proved to be one of the greatest social leaders of all time.

As a social leader, Mahatma Gandhi influenced many people all over the world. His philosophies

and ideas inspired and encouraged others to undergo a social transformation. Gandhiji put a sense of

self-confidence in the common man to fight against any wrong with truth, non-violence, and

non-cooperation. He taught the people to be self reliant and respect manual labor, which he believed must be

rooted in the life and culture of the common people, whom which he lived alongside. Also, Bapu exhibited

the importance of village industries. His honest, virtuous actions launched his movement of passive

resistance toward Britain.

self-confidence in the common man to fight against any wrong with truth, non-violence, and

non-cooperation. He taught the people to be self reliant and respect manual labor, which he believed must be

rooted in the life and culture of the common people, whom which he lived alongside. Also, Bapu exhibited

the importance of village industries. His honest, virtuous actions launched his movement of passive

resistance toward Britain.

Please note that this sample paper on gandhi is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on gandhi, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on gandhi will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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