History of english

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Indo-European Influences

• First language spoken in Britain was Celtic.

• Celts came from Central Asia.

• Celtic had little effect on English

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• Celts were driven to the North and West of Britain.

• Celtic still spoken in Scotland & Wales.

• Celtic words- bog, galore.

• Celtic place name- Avon river

• 55AD Roman invasion (Julius Caesar)

• Romans brought Latin.

• Roman occupation lasted 400 years.

• During Roman occupation Celtic & Latin was spoken.

• Latin word- castra meaning camp. Used in town names Chester, Lancaster & Gloucester

Old English (500AD-1100AD)

• English dates from 5th C.

• 5th C Britain invaded by Angles, Saxons & Jutes.

• Angles, Saxons & Jutes from north Germany.

• Angles, Saxons & Jutes were farmers.

• Angles, Saxons & Jutes language was Anglo-Saxon.

• Anglo-Saxon main language spoken for 500 years.

• Anglo-Saxon forms the basic vocab of English.

• Anglo-Saxon vocab members of family, parts of body, food, numbers up to 1000 and verbs.

• th & 10th C Danes & Vikings invasion.

• Danes & Vikings spoke Old Norse.

• Old Norse & Anglo-Saxon come from Teutonic.

• Old English = Old Norse + Anglo-Saxon

Norman Conquest & Middle English (1066AD-1500AD)

• 1066 William the Conqueror and the Norman army invaded Britain.

• Normans were lawyers, government officials and traders.

• The Normans spoke Norman French.

• Anglo-Saxons were dominated by the Normans.

• French became the official language of England for 00 years.

• Latin still used in church and schools.

• The Anglo-Saxon was still spoken by the Anglo-Saxons.

• Middle English = Norman French + Old English.

• New words from Norman French are master and supper.

• Geoffrey Chaucer used English to write books "The Canterbury Tales".

The Renaissance

• Renaissance means re-birth.

• New words from Latin & Greek. Words = education, experiment, investigate.

• 10,000 new words.

• Shakespeare was one of the heaviest contributors to this. Words = Longhaired, hot blooded, obscene.

• Standardization

• 1467 Caxton introduced the first printing press and used his East Midland dialect.

• 1755 Dr Johnston introduced the first English dictionary.

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The Cattle Enterprise and it's effect on United States History

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The cattle industry of the western frontier with the help of the railroad was essential to the expansion of people to the west. Many things caused people to move onward into the unknown of the frontier. The gold rush and the transcontinental railroad were major pulls towards the west. Yet, some neglect the importance of the cattle industry of the time. The cattle industry not only changed how people consumed food but also was very influential to the expansion of people into the west.

Hearing of all of the numerous employment opportunities, chances to get rich quick and the promise of cheap land, people began to move west. After people realized that striking gold was not a big possibility they needed to find other work. Many young men were either hired by the railroad as a source of cheap labor, or they became cowboys. These cowboys lead the cattle drives to the railroads. Granted most of these young men left the cowboy life when they married, it still helped western expansion with the myth of the romantic image of the cowboy.

The cowboy of the time was something to be revered. "The ideal cowboy fights for justice, risks his life to make the little dismal cowtown safe for law-abiding, respectable citizens, but in doing so he destroys the very environment which made him a heroic figure." (Davis 11) The romantic life of the cowboy was long lived through Beadle and Buntline paperbacks of the time. (Davis 111) Even though these myths are far from true, they still helped to draw more and more young men to the west to experience this fantasy.

At this same time, railroads were being built throughout the western frontier. The Central Pacific Railroad was one of the first to be built when congress granted land rights in 186. Railroads were erected all over the frontier from the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad in the south to the Great Northern Railroad in the North. These new railroads became a great means to transfer cattle from the western frontier to the eastern cities in a much cheaper and more efficient manner. (Davidson et al 51)

Help with essay on The Cattle Enterprise and it's effect on United States HistoryAs the railroad was built, many "cow towns" showed up at the railheads. Towns such as Abilene, Denver and Cheyenne, which lie on the Union Pacific, were major shipping ports for livestock, mainly cattle. Ranchers would bring their cattle to these ports by means of the cattle drive, a method where cattle would eat their way through an open range from Texas, where the cattle were purchased, to Kansas and other railheads. Cow towns in Kansas were the most popular places to bring cattle until the railroads continued to travel farther west, thus expanding the places for cattle to be shipped. (Davidson et al 5)

During the time period before the civil war the majority of the people of the country consumed large numbers of pork and meats other than beef. Cattle were deemed very useful for milk and work rather than for meat purposes. These animals were kept alive longer to use for these purposes. +This all changed post civil war. Americans realized that by eating cattle at an earlier age produced a more tender meat. So the demand for beef started to rise.

Americans were not the only "beef hungry" nation. Britain, who had not completely severed its ties with America, also had a taste for beef. They imported most of their product from America and they had no shortage of money, so they could afford it at any price. At this early time in history the beef industry was in trouble and the market was incredible. (Brayer 87) "Virulent disease struck the livestock industry in the herds of both "spelnic" or Texas fever in the American West and hoof-and-mouth disease in England and Scotland." (Brayer 87) Because of these diseases, many animals were intentionally killed to prevent the disease from spreading further, therefore raising the market for beef even higher.

With the high demand for beef, from Americans and the British, beef prices skyrocketed. Thousands of civil war veterans from both armies went west to pick up cheap land and start a ranch. Demand for cattle was high and soon Texas stocked many of these new farmers and ranchmen with cattle to raise. These early ranches made a considerable amount of money. Land from the government was cheap and all a rancher needed was an abundance of land and a homestead for his family.

Cost for raising these animals was minimal; a steer could survive effortlessly off of the grass of the prairie. A rancher could purchase a Longhorn steer for about eleven dollars then turn around and easily sell that animal for seven to twelve dollars per one hundred pounds, a very nice profit. This get rich quick enterprise helped the cattle industry expand greatly. Many people could jump into the industry at a cheap rate and make enormous profits and in turn buy more and more land and create a respected name for themselves.

Money is one of the many reasons people continued to move west. After realizing that striking it rich in the gold industry was not a possibility for the majority of the population, people turned to another escalating enterprise, the cattle industry. For a large portion of the second half of the 1th century there was much money to be made in raising cattle and many people did indeed move west to take advantage of such an opportunity.

Works Cited

Brayer, Herbert O. "The Influence of British Captiol on the Western Range-Cattle

Industry". The Journal of Economic Industry, Volume , Issue Suplement

The Taks of Economic History (14), 85-8. JSTOR. 5 Feb. 00.

http//links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00-0507%814%%C85%ATIOBCO%E.0.CO%B-Z

Davidson, James W, et. al. Nation of Nations, A Narrative History of the

American Republic. New York McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, 001.

Davis, David S. "Ten-Gallon Hero". American Quarterly, Volume 6, Issue

(Summer, 154), 111-15. JSTOR. 5 Feb. 00. http//links.jstor.org/sici=00-0678%8154%6%A%C111%ATH%E.0.CO%B-W

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Somatoform Disorder

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Somatoform disorder is someone who appears to have a physical medical ailment but doctors cannot find the origin of the illness. For something to categorize as a Somatoform Disorder, the physical symptoms must be serious enough to interfere with the patients employment or relationships, and must be symptoms that are not under the patients voluntary control. In general, somatoform disorder deals with the physical aspects of unknown illnesses, and on the other hand, dissociative disorders deal with the patient's sense of identity or memory. There are seven different kinds of somatoform disorders, each with their own description, or way to be identified. The major problem with somatoform disorders is that it is very hard to recognize and treat because the illness is well camouflaged to appear like normal illnesses. This would create situations where people are being treated for sicknesses that they do not really have, which is an overuse medical services and resources.

The Different Sub-Disorders

Somatization disorder, used to be known as Briquets syndrome since he was the man who first recognized it, require four symptoms of pain, two symptoms in the digestive tract, one symptom involving the sexual organs, and one symptom related to the nervous system. Somatization disorder is a chronic disorder that is persistent throughout a person's life and is likely to appear in families.

Conversion disorder is a condition that the patients senses, ability to walk, or move are impaired without a medical, neurological disease, or cause. Instead, psychological factors are believed to be the causes. Typically, the disorders appear when the patient is under stress or trauma and the disorder rears its head to try to get the patient out of the situation. When speaking of conversion disorders, doctors may refer to the primary or secondary gain, which is the effect that the disorder has on the patient's lives.

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Pain disorder is where the patient suffers from chronic headaches, back problems, arthritis, muscle aches and cramps, or pelvic pain. In some cases, the pain comes from psychological factors only, and in other cases, there is a mix of psychological factors, and an actual medical condition. Sadly, this disorder is relatively common in the United States because of the frequency of work-related injuries.

Hypochondriasis, formerly known as hypochondriacal neurosis, is where the someone has excessive fear or preoccupation with having a serious illness in spite of medical testing and reassurance.

Body dysmorphic disorder is the preoccupation with an imagined or exaggerated defect in one's appearance. The patient can be preoccupied with any part of the body, but typically would be with the face, hands, or their breast or genitals. Is probably the only somatoform disorder where men and women have equal occurrences of the disorder. Body dysmorphic disorder is a relatively new category in DSM-IV

There have been many theories as to what the causes of the disorders are. Family stress is believed the most common cause of these disorders in children and adolescents. Somatization disorder and hypochondriasis may surface from the patients unconscious reflection of parent's behaviors. This is likely if the patients parent derived secondary gain from their symptoms.

Somatoform disorders patients can be given antianxiety or antidepressant drugs if diagnosed with mood or anxiety disorder. However, most believe that it is better not to give the patients any drugs as treatment, but in some cases, it has been very successful. Alternative treatment such as acupuncture, hydrotherapy, therapeutic massage, meditation, botanical medicine, and homeopathic treatment can help people with pain or somatization disorders would be able to ease their pain, and soul in some situations.

Please note that this sample paper on Somatoform Disorder is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Somatoform Disorder, we are here to assist you. Your research paper on Somatoform Disorder will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Children's Minds – Margaret Donaldson

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Donaldson states in the preface of the book that her aim is to present "the evidence (that) now compels us to reject certain features of Jean Piaget's theories of intellectual development." The book does offer supporting evidence and discussions regarding this rejection of some of his foundational assumptions and conclusions but also carries out an in-depth analysis and review of the education system and practices in the United Kingdom, together with discussion and critique of other leading theorists, for example Chomsky. These additional subjects increase the scope of the book from a review of Piagetian theories to a broader review of development psychology.

The book asks a series of questions to develop its initial argument from the school playground until returning to the school playground at the end of the book. It starts with a review of the state of children's education in the UK, with a suggestion that the education system for younger children (infant and junior) succeeds admirably to turn out enthusiastic, self-confident children who enjoy their educational experience. It then looks at the senior school system, which it suggests, in most cases turns out disillusioned children who take their failure at school into their adult lives. It also exposes unhappy teachers who blame the intellect, or lack of, on the children's minds, rather than their teaching or the education system itself.

A number of Piaget's theories are discussed throughout the book. These include egocentricity, decentring, object permanence, class inclusion and conservationism, for which it provides examples of other research that suggests that Piaget grossly underestimated the children's abilities by using unnecessarily complicated experiments, which did not make 'human sense' to the participants and therefore did not achieve the results possible. Donaldson believes that "children are not at any stage as egocentric as Piaget has claimed".

Language is discussed in detail and includes the various theories of language from the early associationist philosophy of speech, to later in the 60's, Chomsky's theories that humans were equipped with a 'Language Acquisition Device', which is an innate Universal Grammar tool. It is theorised that this LAD innately knew the generic rules of grammar of human speech. Later in the 170's John McNamara theorises that children make sense of what people do and then add language, as follows

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"The primary thing is now held to be the grasp of meaning the ability to 'make sense' of things, and above all to make sense of what people do, which of course includes what people say. On this view, it is the child's ability to interpret situations which makes it possible for him, through active processes of hypothesis-testing and inference, to arrive at a knowledge of language". It is further shown that the ability to develop language may help their reasoning.

Clark Hull's proposition is discussed, that reasoning lies in the "putting together of two 'behavioural segments' in some novel way, never actually performed before, so as to reach a goal". Donaldson questions this definition, but goes about proving that 5-year-old children are capable of the logic demanded by this task, albeit in a manner designed to make sense to the participants.

The book explores the concept of 'Human sense' in some detail. It proposes that the better you are at tackling problems without having to be sustained by human sense the more likely you are to succeed in our education system. People who use hands are adjudged failures or they have refused to live by the intellectual demands of education. This non-intellectual apartheid could be because the education system is not set up to develop the aptitude or the taste for intellectual schooling in many young people. Without this set-up, children in education, it is reported, grow bored and disillusioned, if they are unable to achieve the competence and results they desire. It is shown that you cannot educate by reward, by punishment or by letting children educate themselves, so what is left? The book highlights a major dilemma, which is how to intellectually stimulate the majority of the populace to want to be intellectually educated. It is only a small minority of pupils that reach intellectual competence. It is reported that it may be the convenience of having failures, in essence, to do the manual labour and non-intellectual work that is why society has not strived to change the system. A young educated population would not be easy to employ on present production lines.

The book is written in a scientific format and is aimed at an educated audience of psychologists, other professionals involved in development, educationalists and perhaps concerned parents. Although the book is not written in the most gripping prose, the ideas and the enthusiasm with which they are conveyed, make it a compelling read.

It was written to introduce a number of alternative concepts, theories and viewpoints to Piaget's commonly accepted theories. The book achieves this admirably, including details of a number of experiments by different psychologists, expanding on experimental matter completed by Piaget. These experiments expand on Piaget's work and are generally carried out in a more 'Human Sense' and are designed for the children in a more thoughtful manner. It does not present a new theory but is a critique of accepted ideas, which, Donaldson feels should be re-evaluated.

Considering that this study of Piaget was the main intention of the book, it wanders through other developmental psychology theories and into education. Because of this wandering, the book is perhaps a little confused and possibly a little hard to logically follow.

Aside from these trivial reservations it is an outstanding book, which proposes some interesting theories and ideas and offers a new approach to many of the previously held Piagetian views in developmental psychology. It is a 'must read' for anyone interested in childhood, Piagetian psychological theories and more than that for anyone who is concerned about the education system in general.

END

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Anti legalization of marijuana

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Dear Congressman, I am honored to be writing to you on such a significant topic of national concern. Average citizens are annoyed and just plain fatigued with the drugs and crime problems in America. These upright citizens, that contribute to the growth of American society, are being told that legalization is a reasonable alternative to dealing with these problems in their communities. Legalization of any drug is not a positive way to fight crime. In fact, there is no legitimate reason to legalize drugs. The Legalization of marijuana is the starting point of the pro-legalization of drugs movement. The issue of legalizing marijuana is truly a controversial one, and certainly one that requires a plethora of considerations at the top levels of the legislative branch. When considering the possibility of legalizing marijuana as a recreational drug, there are a number of concerns that come to mind. Is marijuana physically harmful to the user? Is marijuana an addictive drug? Does the use of marijuana lead to dependency situations? Does it act as gateway to more hazardous drugs? Does the notion of legalizing marijuana send an immoral, wrong message to the youth of America? Mr. Congressman, the answer to all these questions is YES. According to the DEA (18), the supreme ruler of drug knowledge in America, there are over 10,000 scientific studies that prove marijuana is a harmful and addictive drug. Yet there is no reliable study that proves marijuana has any medical value. Marijuana is an unstable mixture of over 45 chemicals, which when smoked are converted to over thousands. Most of these are toxic, psychoactive chemicals which are unstudied and appear in uncontrolled strengths. Marijuana leads to many different consequences depending on the personality and general characteristics of the individual using the drug. These may include, but are not limited to premature cancer, addiction, coordination and perception impairment, mental disorders, hostility and increased aggressiveness, general unconcern of life, memory loss, reproductive disabilities, and impairment to the immune system. Marijuana is currently up to 5 times more potent than it was in the 160s, which makes the drug even more addictive. In 14, a U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that marijuana should remain a Schedule I drug highly addictive with no medical usefulness. Marijuana is a harmful substance. The use of marijuana for the purposes of intoxication leads to a number of serious health risks. Research has proven that marijuana damages short term memory, distorts perceptions, impairs complex motor skills, alters the heart rate, can lead to severe anxiety, and can cause paranoia and lethargy. A condition called Amotivational syndrome take places after chronic use. It is defined by Dr. Harry Avis (16), professor of psychology as, a condition characterized by a lack of ambition or desire to succeed, presumed to be the result of smoking marijuana. As reported in The Medical Journal of Australia, Marijuana causes birth defects, fetal damage, lung cancer, long-term impairment of memory, schizophrenia, suppression of the immune system, and even leukemia in the children of marijuana-smoking mothers (Nahas & Latour, 1). The National Institute on Drug Abuse (16) reported that the chemicals found in marijuana smoke suppresses the neurons in the information-processing system of the hippocampus. This is the part of the brain that is crucial for learning, memory, and the integration of sensory experiences with emotions and motivation. Marijuana, should it be legalized, would ruin many Americans abilities to learn, and would abruptly decay the development and progress of the American Society. Marijuana is dangerous, and it is more dangerous than it ever has been. The federal Drug Abuse Warning Network, or DAWN, claims that recent statistics show increases in the number of patients mentioning marijuana in hospital emergency rooms (The Marijuana Debate Goes On, 18). Inexperienced users may suffer acute anxiety the first time they use it. This could be a direct result of the increase in potency of marijuana. Growers have access to the latest agricultural technologies and scientific methods which enable them to grow more powerful marijuana. Growers have become extremely sophisticated about developing varieties of marijuana with high concentrations of THC (Is Marijuana Dangerous? Is It Addictive?, 15). THC, or Delta--tetrahydrocannabinol is one of the 400 chemicals in marijuana. It accounts for most of marijuanas psychoactive, or mind-altering, effects (Facts About Marijuana and Marijuana Abuse, 16). The levels of THC found in the modern drug markets marijuana are much higher than they have ever been. The concentration of THC will keep increasing in the future. This directly leads to more and stronger addictions to marijuana. One argument that the pro-legalization movement pleads is that there are thousands of legal medical drugs on the market that have possible side effects that can be dangerous to the user. One effect can be dependency and addiction to prescription drugs. Now, sure there are perception drugs on the market that are potentially dangerous to the person taking the drugs, but their effects are nothing compared to that of marijuana. Such a comparison can be made with a knife and a gun. Both are potentially lethal and dangerous. Just being careless with a knife can result in death or injury, but with the gun, all one has to be is stupid enough to mess with it. Also, recreational marijuana users are not taking marijuana under a doctors supervision, or taking a prescribed dosage from a pharmacist. This argument is by no means grounds for possible consideration of legalizing marijuana. The addictive ability of marijuana has been studied and discussed for some time now. Many studies have transpired to verify these addictive effects. It is said that marijuana is not physically addictive but is psychologically addictive. None the less, there are obvious signs that marijuana users become addicted in some manner. Nationwide about 100,000 people a year seek treatment to get off marijuana, according to Alan I. Leshner, director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Is Marijuana Dangerous? Is It Addictive, 15). Dr. David Smith, founder of Haight-Ashbury Free Clinics in San Francisco, says that, the clinics there treat about 100 youths a month who seek help with marijuana dependency (Is Marijuana Dangerous? Is It Addictive, 15). Most people probably arent aware, but an organization called Marijuana Anonymous actually exists. The only requirement for membership is a desire to stop using marijuana. Such an organization would not exist if addiction and dependency were not associated with marijuana use. The physically harmful and addictive effects of marijuana should be grounds enough to stop the legalization campaigns. We need to stay focused though, on a much more critical problem our nation faces with this pro-drug crusade. That is protecting the American children from throwing their lives away on drugs. If marijuana were legalized with restrictions, similar to the age restrictions on tobacco and alcohol, the use of marijuana by children under such an age would increase. If its legal, children would get the notion that it isnt harmful. The physical effects of marijuana mentioned previously are much more dangerous to the youths of America, whos minds and bodies have not even finished developing. The Office of National Drug Control Policys Statement on Marijuana for Medical Purposes (17) says, marijuana use among kids has increased 78 percent in the last four years alone. With drug use by young people increasing, we must not send a mixed message to our youth about the dangers of marijuana. The recent proposals for legalization and the medical usage laws are sending messages to the American children that it is ok to smoke pot. And it simply is not. Our nations goals must be to reduce, not promote the use of illicit drugs by our children. Marijuana is the first step that children take into the dark world of drug abuse. It acts as a gateway to more serious problems. The idea is that cocaine and heroin users dont just start out with cocaine and heroin. They start with drugs like marijuana that are easier to get, to try, and are less legally offensive. According to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (18), teens 1-17 who use marijuana are 85 times more likely to use cocaine than non-marijuana users. The CASA president, Joseph A. Califano, says, that the gateway effect means that recent increases in marijuana use among teens will translate into 80,000 more children who will try cocaine in their lifetime, of whom 58,000 will become (narcotics) addicts(The Marijuana Debate Goes on, 18). The number of children that will use cocaine will increase should marijuana be legalized. No-one debates the issue of legalizing cocaine. And no one should. Cocaine, heroin, crack, and every other illicit drug out there should all remain illegal too. There is no debate about the dangers of these drugs. When local drug dealers know that your younger brother, sister, or child has tried smoking pot they see a new customer for some of their more dangerous drugs. If marijuana is a gateway to hard drugs, it is likely due to its illicit status that the purveyors of pot can put your adolescent in touch with the local crack connection (Clark, 17). These drugs can kill the first time that they are used. There is no dispute about the dangers of addiction and withdrawal that accompany the use of such drugs. Do you want these dealers hassling the children of America? Legalizing marijuana would set us on a slippery slope toward accepting any and all drugs. Many pro-legalization organizations try to compare prohibition of alcohol to the illegal status of marijuana. They try to make claims that marijuana isnt as dangerous as alcohol and should then be legal as well. This argument could be debated for years, supported by scientists with physical studies backing up both sides of the issue. Alcohol is definitely a dangerous and addictive drug. It leads to thousands of deaths a year, be it drunk driving or other crimes executed while intoxicated. It truthfully doesnt matter which drug would eventually be deemed the most dangerous. The fact of the matter is that this pro-legalization argument is not a valid reason to legalize marijuana. The alcohol situation that transpired during the early part of this century was totally different from the current situation with marijuana. Prohibition of alcohol was repealed after just 1 years while prohibition against marijuana has lasted for more than seventy five years. Alcohol prohibition struck directly at tens of millions of Americans of all ages, including many of societies most powerful members. Marijuana prohibition threatens far fewer Americans. Most of which are young and relatively subordinate Americans. Alcohol prohibition was repealed and marijuana prohibition was retained, not because scientists had proved that alcohol was the less dangerous of the various psychoactive drugs, but because of the prejudices and preferences of the majority of Americans. Marijuana has no place in American society. The cost to society of the two legal drugs, alcohol and tobacco, has been and still is enormous. As De Leon (14) puts it, we certainly dont need to add any more problems by increasing the availability of marijuana. Even if it is relatively ineffective, we have developed social control over the use of legal drugs such as alcohol and tobacco. Among most drinkers, solitary drinking, drinking and driving, and being intoxicated are socially sanctioned, while drinking moderately with family and friends and taking precautions about driving are encouraged. No such controls prevail over marijuana or any other drugs. (Avis, 16). Marijuana should remain illegal because of the enormous number of side effects and the addictions that result from use. The illegality of drugs helps to discourage at least some people from trying them. Making marijuana widely available would undoubtedly increase at least experimental use, and given the stronger potency of modern marijuana, most users would go on to develop abuse-related problems (MacCaoun, 1). Marijuana is still a drug! That fact can not be changed no matter how many people vote on it. Drugs lead to Crime. And Crime breaks down society. Average citizens, fed up with crime and drugs, are being told that legalization is a reasonable alternative. As Thomas A. Constantine, administrator for the DEA, puts it (Speaking Out, 1), legalization is not an alternative, but rather a surrender which will reduce our quality of life. Health and social costs associated with the increased availability of marijuana would break our economy. Crime would not decrease. The moral fiber of our country would be ripped apart.

Bibliography

Works Cited Avis, Harry. (16). Drugs & Life. Chicago Brown & Benchmark. 17-156, 45-65. Clark, Thomas W. (17, May/June). Keep Marijuana Illegal. Humanist, 57, p. 14. De Leon, G. (14). Some Problems with the anti-prohibitionist position on the legalization of drugs. Journal of Analytical Toxicology, 1-7,14. Is Marijuana Dangerous? Is It Addictive?... (15, July 8). CQ Researcher, p. 666-667. MacCoun, R. (1). Drugs and the law A psychological analysis of drug prohibition. Psychological Bulletin, 11, 47-51. Nahas, C.G., & Latour, C. (1). The Human Toxicity of Marijuana. Medical Journal of Australia, 156, 45-47. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (16, May/April). NIDA publication Facts About Marijuana and Marijuana Abuse [Publication posted on the World Wide Web]. Washington, DC. Retrieved April 15, 1 from the World Wide Web http//www.nida.nih.gov/NIDA_NOTES/NNVol11N/MarijuanaTearoff.html Office of National Drug Control Policy. (17, August 4). ONDCP publication ONDCP Statement on Marijuana for Medical Purposes [Publication posted on the World Wide Web]. Washington, DC. Retrieved April , 1 from the World Wide Web http//www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/policy/medmj.html Shalala, Donna E. (15, August 18). Say No to Legalization of Marijuana. Wall Street Journal, pp. A10. The Marijuana Debate Goes on. (18, November 0). CQ Researcher, p. 1018-101. U.S. Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration. (1, February 10). DEA press release DEA Arrests, Seizures Rise in 18 As National Crime Rate Drops [Press Release on the World Wide Web]. Washington, DC. Retrieved April 8, 1 from the World Wide Web http//www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/legaliz/contents.htm U.S. Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration. DEA publication Say It Straight The Medical Myths of Marijuana [Publication posted on the World Wide Web]. Washington, DC. Retrieved April 8, 1 from the World Wide Web http//www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/sayit/myths.htm U.S. Department of Justice Drug Enforcement Administration. DEA publication Speaking Out Against Drug Legalization [Publication posted on the World Wide Web]. Washington, DC. Retrieved April 8, 1 from the World Wide Web http//www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/legaliz/contents.htm

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My Country

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My name is Armine Tadevosyan, age of twenty three.

I have so many things to reveal to you that may be a mystery.

If you guess from what country I am coming,

It will be the key point of being exciting.

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It may be easy to guess or maybe not,

But, if you're smart enough, I'll tell you what.

Just look at my name and ponder a second,

Which derives from the name of my homeland.

You will find my name to be not only neat and old,

But also that it encloses in it all the history of the world.

You may get surprised and ask me how?

I'll jump and open the page of the Bible to show,

A sacred name of a Mountain called Ararat,

Where Noah's ark landed after the 40-day flood.

This holy symbol is another name of my country

Which is very famous as the Ararat Valley.

Oh, a paradise spot, which reminds you of the Garden of Eden,

Which appealed to Noah's family and all creatures he had with him.

It was there where Noah talked to his sons and gave his word,

To make their way into the countries of the world.

Now, my friends, if you have found,

Your ancestors were English, Polish or German,

It's not true, the roots of each of your lineage

Ends up as an Armenian.

Isn't it fantastic? Maybe yes, maybe no,

But it's always fascinating to know about it more.

It's a country with thousands of mountains and stony blocks,

Where people squeeze their bread out of the rocks.

It's a country of Christian religion for 1700 years of age,

Which became the main cause for the nation to appear in a cage.

My land is surrounded by four Moslem countries -

Turkey, Azerbaijan, Iran and Iraq, who act as enemies.

This poor country has never experienced any time of peace.

But still, due to our brave fathers and strong faith

It stands firm like a granite artwork piece.

I must shout, proclaim, be proud and boast

That my country was the first that accepted the Heavenly Host.

In 01 we adopted Christianity as a state religion,

Which changed the life of humans even in the dungeon.

And the thousands of old and new churches today

Are the silent witnesses of all these changes from that day.

Oh, I almost forgot, what about the people?

Who live there and make the living simple.

They are people; caring, hospitable and kind,

Whoever meets them once, always keep them in their mind.

They have great love to all nations without exception,

As they realize all of us are God's creation.

So, I hope these things didn't sound to you like an enigma,

It was just about a country,

Which is called ARMENIA.

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The Evolution of Plate Tectonics

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A central problem in understanding the Earth system is the relationship

between mantle convection and near-surface structure, geophysics and

geochemistry. Unexplained anomalies of the plate tectonics (PT) model are the

postulated mechanism of generating the axial rift valley by upward movement of

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marginal fault blocks, contrary to observations in the Icelandic rift, and the

mechanism by which a postulated broad upwelling plume can yield the required

narrow zone of axial volcanism. These discrepancies are the basis for a

critical reappraisal of other evidence. It is shown that the generation of

oceanic magnetic stripes, which led to the ingenious spreading hypothesis, is

a result of narrowing of a formerly expanded ocean ridge volcanic system, and

resultant sequential cooling of crust and upper mantle, and does not require

ocean floor spreading. An alternative ridge model postulates sub-continent

upwelling, sub-ridge convergent flow and generation of mid-ocean ridge basalt

(MORB) by heterogeneous volatile-promoted melting at sub-axial zones where

oceanic crest is recycled into the mantle. That model is favored by the

results of convection experiments and confirmed by a series of independent

indicators heat flow beneath ridge flanks, coriolis curvature of fracture

zones (FZ), downstream development of convective rolls and near-transform

tectonic rotations. Sub-axial downflow is confirmed by North Atlantic positive

geoid anomalies, by high P-wave velocities deep below the ridge axis, and by

the synclinal flexload structure and compressional stress regime of

near-axial crest. Oceanic island volcanism is attributed to the same process,

crustal recycling at local sites of downflow focused by deep residual masses

that are relatively cold (radioactivity depleted) and viscous (volatile

depleted). The recycling model is confirmed, for both MORB and OIB, and

decompression melting of mantle plumes rejected, on several grounds (1) local

recycling of crest and resultant mantle hydration are indicated by diapirs of

serpentinized mantle along fracture zones and ridge axes; () distinctive

isotopic signatures in oceanic basalt require local recycling of crest and

sediments to the magma source; () the principal oceanic island groups,

exemplified by the Hawaiian islands, lack the positive heat flow anomaly

expected over a plume and are underlain by zones of relatively high seismic

velocities. The proposed local recycling accounts for several previously

puzzling features of global geochemical systems, including the carbon budget,

the lead paradox and the isotopic array of heavy noble gases in oceanic

basalt. Deduced end-member components, defined by isotope ratios, can be

attributed to regionally variable mixtures of upper mantle with terrigenous

and pelagic sediments, subaerial and suboceanic basalt, and with depleted

lower mantle, proposed to have been available during a Pacific-centered

Mesozoic mantle surge. There is no need to appeal to the several currently

favored isolated reservoirs in the upper and lower mantle. Seismic data for

continental ranges, exemplified by the Alpine region, show that the plate

collision model is misleading in view of increasing evidence for upper mantle

deformation by viscous creep. Continental rift systems are re-examined on the

basis that the oceanic axial zone can be traced to the African rifts, via

Afar, and are therefore taken to be a result of a similar dynamic system. It

is shown that dominant upwelling plumes are focused beneath the thick keels of

ancient cratons and that rift systems, typically at craton margins, are

collapse structures in zones of convergence and downflow.

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